The Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews

In 1823, a Congregationalist minister named Ethan Smith published a book called View of the Hebrews (a second edition appeared in 1825). In his book, Smith argued that the Native Americans were descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel. Some have claimed that View of the Hebrews influenced Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon, and that Oliver Cowdery may have played a key role as the one who passed on the book or its ideas to Joseph. This Q&A reviews the history of View of the Hebrews controversy.

Timeline of the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews

The Early Lives of Ethan Smith, Joseph Smith, and Oliver Cowdery; the Publication of View of the Hebrews; the Coming Forth of the Book of Mormon.

December 19, 1762

Ethan Smith[BIO] is born in Belchertown, Hampshire County, Massachusetts.[1]

1780

Ethan Smith fights in the Revolutionary War.[2]

1785-1790

Ethan Smith studies at Dartmouth.[3]

January 25, 1792

Ethan Smith becomes the first pastor of the Congregational Church in Haverhill, Grafton County, New Hampshire.[4]

March 12, 1800

Ethan Smith is installed as a pastor in Hopkinton, Merrimack County, New Hampshire.[5]

December 5, 1805

Joseph Smith Jr.[BIO] is born in Sharon, Windsor County, Vermont.[6]

October 3, 1806

Oliver Cowdery[BIO] is born in Wells, Rutland County, Vermont.[7][8]

Circa 1809

The Cowdery family moves to Poultney, Rutland County, Vermont.[9]

March 18, 1810

William Cowdery[BIO] marries Keziah Cowdery[BIO] in Middletown, Rutland County, Vermont, who becomes Oliver's stepmother.[10]

Summer 1810

The Cowdery family moves to Williamson, Ontario County, New York.[11]

1811

The Joseph Smith Sr. family moves to Lebanon, Grafton County, New Hampshire.[12]

May 26, 1811

Oliver's stepmother Keziah receives a "letter of recommendation" from the Congregational Church in Poultney.[13]

Circa 1813–1814

The Cowdery family returns to Middletown, Rutland County, Vermont.[14]

1816

The Smith family moves to Palmyra, Wayne County, New York.[15]

1818

The Smith family moves to Manchester Township, Ontario County, New York.[16]

February 26, 1818

Ethan Smith is installed as a pastor of a Presbyterian church in Hebron, Washington County, New York.[17]

August 2, 1818

Oliver's half-sisters Rebecca Maria,[BIO] Lucy,[BIO] and Phebe[BIO] are baptized in the Congregational Church in Poultney.[18]

1820

The Cowdery family is recorded in the 1820 census as living in Poultney, Rutland County, Vermont.[19]

November 21, 1821

Ethan Smith becomes pastor of the Congregational Church in Poultney.[20]

1821–1822

Oliver Cowdery attends school in Wells, Rutland County, Vermont.[21]

November 1822

Ethan Smith's son, Sanford Smith,[BIO] and his partner, John R. Shute,[BIO] open a printing press in Poultney and begin publication of the Poultney Gazette. Ethan Smith assists as a writer and editor for the paper.[22]

June 11, 1823

Ethan Smith secures a copyright for the View of the Hebrews.[23]

July 1823

The Poultney Gazette indicates View of the Hebrews is at press.[24]

September 21, 1823

The angel Moroni appears to Joseph Smith and informs him of the gold plates.[25]

December 1823

The Poultney Gazette announces the sale of View of the Hebrews.[26] Shortly afterward, reviews of the book begin to be published.[27]

1824

View of the Hebrews receives national distribution.[28][29]

Circa 1825

Oliver Cowdery leaves Poultney and moves to Western New York.[30][31]

April 1825

Ethan Smith publishes a second edition of View of the Hebrews.[32]

1825

Josiah Priest,[BIO] in his book The Wonders of Nature and Providence, republishes extensive extracts from View of the Hebrews.[33] Priest's book is available in the town library in Manchester Township, Ontario County, New York, where the Smith family lives.[34][35]

December 29, 1826

Ethan Smith is dismissed from his pastorate in Poultney because a "misunderstanding had arisen between one of the deacons and himself."[36]

1826–1830

View of the Hebrews continues to receive national distribution.[37][38]

May 16, 1827

Ethan Smith becomes pastor of a Congregational Church in Hanover, Plymouth County, Massachusetts, his last pastoral charge before becoming a domestic missionary in Boston beginning in 1832.[39]

September 21, 1827

Joseph Smith receives the gold plates and begins the translation of the Book of Mormon.[40]

December 1827

Joseph Smith moves to Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania.[41]

Summer 1828

Joseph translates at least 116 manuscript pages of the Book of Mormon.[42]

April 5, 1829

Oliver Cowdery meets Joseph for the first time in Harmony.[43]

March 26, 1830

E. B. Grandin[BIO] announces the publication and sale of the Book of Mormon.[44]

The Public Reception of View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon; Ethan Smith's Writings Post-1830; the Early Latter-day Saint Response to View of the Hebrews.

1830–1844

Various writers react to the arguments made in View of the Hebrews about the origins of Native Americans.[45]

1831

Alexander Campbell[BIO] publishes a critique of the Book of Mormon, arguing that Joseph Smith is the sole author of the text.[46]

1832

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque[BIO] first mentions View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon together. He criticizes them both for their explanations of Native American origins.[47]

1834

E. D. Howe[BIO] publishes Mormonism Unvailed, arguing that the Book of Mormon is based on Solomon Spaulding's[BIO] unpublished manuscript.[48]

1841

Ethan Smith begins publicly challenging the teachings of William Miller,[BIO] the founder of the movement that would later give rise to Seventh-day Adventism.[49]

June 1842

Joseph Smith, as editor of the Times and Seasons, republishes extracts from View of the Hebrews to support the idea that migrations occurred from the Old World to the New World.[50]

1842

J. B. Turner[BIO] publishes Mormonism in All Ages, arguing that Joseph Smith is the sole author of the Book of Mormon.[51]

June 27, 1844

Joseph Smith dies in Carthage, Hancock County, Illinois.[52]

August 29, 1849

Ethan Smith dies in Boylston, Worcester County, Massachusetts.[53]

March 3, 1850

Oliver Cowdery dies in Richmond, Ray County, Missouri.[54]

1859

The Church's newspaper, the Millennial Star, republishes an extract from View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon.[55][56]

25 years pass

First Documented Accusations of the Book of Mormon's Dependence on View of the Hebrews; Modern Latter-day Saint Response to View of the Hebrews.

1884

Clark Braden,[BIO] an elder in the Church of Christ (Campbellite) claims that Sidney Rigdon[BIO] stole ideas from Ethan Smith via Josiah Priest that he then fed to Joseph Smith in fabricating the Book of Mormon.[57]

April 1887

An anonymous newspaper report in the Cleveland Plain Dealer suggests some kind of possible connection between the Hebrew-Indian origins theory of Ethan Smith and the Book of Mormon.[58]

February 1896

The Contributor, published by the Church, positively cites View of the Hebrews as evidence that supports the Book of Mormon.[59]

January 1902

The claim that the Book of Mormon directly plagiarized View of the Hebrews is documented for the first time in a debate between a member of the RLDS Church and the Campbellite Church over the origins of the Book of Mormon.[60]

1902

Isaac Woodbridge Riley[BIO] publishes The Founder of Mormonism, the first major academic work to posit View of the Hebrew's influence on the Book of Mormon.[61]

October 1902

George Reynolds[BIO] publishes extracts of View of the Hebrews in the Juvenile Instructor, the Church's periodical for young adults, as evidence that supports the Book of Mormon.[62]

1903

The Church publishes a manual on the Book of Mormon for young adults that includes citations of View of the Hebrews to support the idea of Native Americans originating from the Old World.[63]

1909

The Church publishes New Witnesses for God, by B. H. Roberts,[BIO] which cites the arguments in View of the Hebrews as evidence for the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.[64]

1909

Clark Braden again argues that Mormon writers plagiarized ideas in View of the Hebrews.[65]

1912

German scholar Eduard Meyer[BIO] argues that View of the Hebrews may have influenced Joseph Smith.[66]

1914

Charles A. Shook[BIO] suggests Ethan Smith's theories may have influenced Joseph Smith.[67]

Late-1921 to early-1922

B. H. Roberts conducts unpublished research on whether View of the Hebrews could have influenced Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon.[68]

1930s

Dale Morgan,[BIO] in an unpublished study on early Mormon history, points to View of the Hebrews as indicative of the kind of environmental sources available to Joseph Smith for inspiration or content for the Book of Mormon.[69]

1930s

Rumors about the existence of Roberts's manuscript comparing the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews begin circulating.[70]

1937

A Church publication on the Book of Mormon for young adult Latter-day Saints cites Ethan Smith to support the idea that Native Americans are of "Hebrew origin."[71]

Modern Theories and Debates about View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon.

1945

Fawn Brodie[BIO] publishes No Man Knows My History, which popularizes the theory that Joseph got some inspiration for the Book of Mormon from View of the Hebrews.[72][73]

1946

B. H. Roberts's unpublished research on the parallels between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon begins privately circulating.[74]

1948

The Church's Spanish-language periodical Liahona cites View of the Hebrews as evidence supporting the Book of Mormon.[75]

1961

Church Historian Joseph Fielding Smith[BIO] mentions B. H. Roberts's unpublished study and confirms the Church owns a copy of View of the Hebrews in its archives.[76]

1945–1976

Multiple studies from both believing and skeptical scholars argue back and forth on whether Joseph Smith plagiarized or was otherwise influenced by View of the Hebrews.[77][78]

September 1976

An article in the Ensign directly addresses the theory that the Book of Mormon was derived from View of the Hebrews.[79]

1980s

A series of articles are published continuing the debate over View of the Hebrews and whether B. H. Roberts lost his testimony over the parallels it shares with the Book of Mormon.[80][81]

1992

The Encyclopedia of Mormonism[82] includes an article on View of the Hebrews.[83]

October 1993

President Gordon B. Hinckley[BIO] briefly mentions View of the Hebrews in general conference.[84]

1996

Brigham Young University republishes View of the Hebrews.[85]

October 2009

During General Conference, Elder Jeffrey R. Holland[BIO] mentions Ethan Smith's alleged influence on Joseph Smith as a "failed theory" for the origins of the Book of Mormon.[86]

November 2016

Elder Tad R. Callister[BIO] responds to claims that the Book of Mormon was plagiarized from View of the Hebrews in a BYU devotional.[87]

2018

The Church releases a "Church History Topic" essay that briefly addresses the controversy surrounding View of the Hebrews.[88]

Expand Timeline

What is View of the Hebrews?

View of the Hebrews is an 1823 book[89] by Ethan Smith[BIO] that argues that the Native Americans were descendants of the lost Ten Tribes of Israel.[90] Ethan Smith cited biblical passages, Jewish history, and Indian customs and legends to support his arguments.[91]

Ethan Smith was a reverend from New England who pastored several churches in New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont.[92]

What does View of the Hebrews have to do with the Book of Mormon?

At the beginning of the twentieth century, people began pointing out parallels between the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews.[93]

Some have argued that Joseph Smith must have plagiarized ideas from View of the Hebrews to produce the Book of Mormon.[94][95] Others have used it as supporting evidence for parts of the Book of Mormon.[96]

What kind of parallels does this mean?

There are several commonly cited parallels between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon (see table below).

Examples of Parallels Between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon

View of the Hebrews (1823/1825)	Book of Mormon (1830)
Published in Poultney, Rutland County, Vermont	Joseph Smith was born in Sharon, Windsor County, Vermont
Hebrew origin for Native Americans	Hebrew origin for Native Americans
The destruction of Jerusalem	The destruction of Jerusalem
A hidden Indian parchment and lost Indian records	Gold plates hidden in the Hill Cumorah
Inspired prophets among the Native Americans	Inspired prophets among the Nephites (Native Americans)
Indian shamans possess an object similar to the Israelite high priest's Urim and Thummim	Joseph Smith described using the Urim and Thummim to translate the Book of Mormon.
Barbarous and civilized tribes of Native Americans	Barbarous (Lamanites) and civilized (Nephites) peoples described in the Book of Mormon
Citations of the prophet Isaiah	Citations of the prophet Isaiah
A great Gentile nation	A great Gentile nation
Polygamy, riches, and pride denounced	Polygamy, riches, and pride denounced
Prophecies about the "stick of Joseph" and the "stick of Judah"	Prophecies about the "stick of Joseph" and the "stick of Judah"
Quetzalcoatl as a type of Christ	Christ's appearance to the Nephites in the New World
Indians expected to be restored	Remnant of Lehi's seed (Indians) expected to be restored
A great nation became extinct	A great nation became extinct
America a choice land	America a choice land
Idolatry and human sacrifice	Idolatry and human sacrifice
Extensive wars and military fortifications	Extensive wars and military fortifications
The name "Ethan Smith"	The name "Ether"
Collated from B. H. Roberts's "A Parallel" (1927);[97] Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows My History (1945);[98] G. T. Harrison, Mormonism Now and Then (1961);[99] Jeremy Runnells, CES Letter (2013; 2017).[100]

Expand Table

What about the Isaiah chapters? Aren't those in View of the Hebrews too?

Yes. About one-third of the Isaiah chapters included in View of the Hebrews are also found in the Book of Mormon.[101]

Read More Difficult Questions

378 Primary Sources

Footnotes

BIOEthan Smith
Ethan Smith (1762–1849) was a New England clergyman who was born in Belchertown, Massachusetts. He became a Congregationalist clergyman and authored a variety of works, including View of the Hebrews, a book that critics have highlighted as a possible source of the Book of Mormon. There is no family relation between Ethan Smith and the Joseph Smith family.
BIOJoseph Smith, Jr.
Joseph Smith (1805–1844) organized The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in Sharon, Vermont, he began to experience visions of deity and angels at a young age. One vision featured the Angel Moroni, who revealed the location of gold plates with an account of ancient Americans. He translated this record and published it as The Book of Mormon. He continued to receive revelations throughout his life which serve as the foundation for the Church's doctrine today. He led the Latter-day Saints across the country from New York to Illinois. In 1844, he was martyred while awaiting trial in Carthage, Illinois.
BIOOliver Cowdery
Oliver Cowdery (1806–1850) was a scribe for the Book of Mormon and served as one of the Book of Mormon's Three Witnesses. In 1838, he was excommunicated from the church for a number of reasons, including encouraging lawsuits against the Church and defaming Joseph Smith by accusing him of adultery. He returned to the faith near the end of his life and never denied his testimony of the Book of Mormon's veracity.
BIOWilliam Cowdery
William Cowdery Jr. (September 5, 1765–February 26, 1847) was the father of Oliver Cowdery, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. William was born at East Haddam, Connecticut, and was raised a Congregationalist. He married Rebecca Fuller (Oliver's mother) and moved to Wells, Vermont, around 1787. He then moved to Middletown, Vermony, in 1809 where he married Keziah Pearce Austin a year later. He eventually settled in Poultney, Vermont, by 1820. He joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and moved to Kirtland, Ohio, where he served as president of the priests quorum. He died in Kirtland in 1847.
BIOKeziah Cowdery
Keziah Pearce Austin Cowdery (July 1, 1773–July 10, 1860) was the wife of William Cowdery and step-mother of Oliver Cowdery, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. She was born on July 1, 1773, in East Haddam, Connecticut. She first married Harrington Austin in 1793 and then William Cowdery in 1810. They had three children together: Rebecca Marie, Lucy, and Phoebe. She died on 10 July 1860, in Ellery, Chautauqua, New York.
BIORebecca Marie Cowdery
Rebecca Marie Cowdery (December 18, 1810–September 4, 1894) was the half-sister of Oliver Cowdery, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. She was born in Williamson, New York in 1810. She married Lawrence Frank in Kirtland, Ohio in 1836. Together they had four children. She emigrated to Nebraska in 1854 where he husband became the first postmaster of Omaha. Later she moved to California where she died in 1894.
BIOLucy Cowdery Young
Lucy Pearce Cowdery Young (June 3, 1814–November 29, 1898) was the half-sister of Oliver Cowdery, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. She was born on June 3, 1814, in Poultney, Vermont, to William and Keziah Cowdery. She married Phineas Howe Young, brother of Brigham Young, on September 28, 1834, in Kirtland, Ohio. They had four children. She emigrated to Utah and died in Park City, Utah, on November 29, 1898.
BIOPhoebe Cowdery
Phoebe Cowdery (January 17, 1817—January 1892) was the half-sister of Oliver Cowdery, one of the Three Witnesses of the Book of Mormon. In 1836, she married Daniel Jackson in Kirtland, Ohio. Together they had ten children. She emigrated to Iowa and then to California where she died in 1892.
BIOSanford Smith
Stephen Sanford Smith (April 14, 1797–October 28, 1871) was the son of Rev. Ethan Smith and a cofounder along with John R. Shute of the Poultney Gazette, a newspaper based in Poultney, Vermont. He married Lucretia Miller Bishop in 1823 and together they were the parents of 10 children. Like his father, he went into the ministry. He was also involved in different religious efforts including the American Sunday School Union and the American Bible Society. He died in 1871.
BIOJohn R. Shute
John R. Shute was an American newspaper editor. Along with Sanford Smith, he founded a newspaper in Poultney, Vermont, in November 1822 called the Poultney Gazette. Beginning in January 1825 the name of the paper was changed to the Northern Spectator.
BIOJosiah Priest
Josiah Priest (1788–1851) was an American author and antiquarian known for his works on early American history, Native American cultures, and religious subjects. His writings were popular in the 19th century and include notable works such as The Wonders of Nature and Providence, Displayed (1826) and American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West (1833). Priest's writings often combined elements of history, religion, and pseudo-archaeology. He was known for his vivid and imaginative style, which appealed to the popular audience of his time. His works reflected and contributed to the 19th-century American fascination with antiquarianism, biblical connections to American history, and the mysterious origins of Native American civilizations. While Priest's works were popular, they were also criticized for their lack of scholarly rigor and reliance on speculative and sometimes fantastical interpretations of historical and archaeological evidence.
BIOEgbert B. Grandin
Egbert B. Grandin (March 30, 1806–April 16, 1845) was an early 19th-century American printer and publisher known for printing the first edition of the Book of Mormon. Born in Freehold, New York, he eventually settled in Palmyra, New York, where he established a printing business. In 1829, Joseph Smith and Martin Harris approached him to print the Book of Mormon. Despite initial reluctance and the controversial nature of the book, Grandin agreed to print it after securing a payment guarantee from Martin Harris. Grandin died in Palmyra in 1845.
BIOAlexander Campbell
Alexander Campbell (1788-1866) was a Scots-Irish immigrant who became an ordained minister in the United States and, with his father Thomas Campbell, became a leading figure in the Restoration Movement. In 1831, he wrote a review of the Book of Mormon in his newspaper, the Millennial Harbinger, entitled "Delusions: An analysis of the book of Mormon with an examination of its internal and external evidences, and a refutation of its pretenses to divine authority." His works include The Living Oracles (1826), a translation of the New Testament, The Christian System (1836), and Christian Baptism—Its Antecedents and Consequents (1851).
BIOConstantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (October 22, 1783–September 18, 1840) was a polymath naturalist, botanist, zoologist, and anthropologist who made significant contributions to various scientific fields in the early 19th century. Known for his extensive travels and prolific writings, Rafinesque was a somewhat controversial figure due to his unconventional methods and often speculative theories. He was born in Galata, a suburb of Constantinople (now Istanbul), to a French father and a German mother. He traveled extensively throughout Europe and America, collecting specimens and observing natural phenomena. He first visited the United States in 1802 and later settled there permanently in 1815. He had a deep interest in Native American cultures and languages and published works on Native American linguistics and mythology, including translations and interpretations of native texts. He died of stomach and liver cancer in Philadelphia in 1840.
BIOE. D. Howe
Eber Dudley Howe (1798–1885) was an Ohio newspaper editor and journalist who authored an early influential anti-Mormon book: Mormonism Unvailed [sic]. Howe was a vocal opponent of the Latter-day Saints in the pages of his newspaper the Painesville Telegraph. Along with Doctor Philastus Hurlbut (1809–1883), he formulated the Solomon Spaulding theory of the origin of the Book of Mormon.
BIOSolomon Spaulding
Solomon Spaulding (alt. Spalding) (1761-1816) was an American author who, from 1809 to 1812, worked on a historical fiction about a Roman discovery of the Americas. This unfinished manuscript is sometimes called "The Oberlin Manuscript" or "Honolulu Manuscript." This text was published by the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1885 and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1886 and 1920 under the name Manuscript Found. One early theory of Book of Mormon origins (still popular in some circles today) is that this manuscript was used as a source by Joseph Smith to produce the Book of Mormon.
BIOWilliam Miller
William Miller (February 15, 1782–December 20, 1849) was an American preacher who is best known for founding the Millerite movement, which predicted the Second Coming of Christ. His teachings and the subsequent movement had a significant impact on American religious history and laid the groundwork for the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Around 1818, he concluded that the Second Coming of Christ would occur around 1843 or 1844. This conclusion was based on his interpretation of biblical prophecies, particularly from the books of Daniel and Revelation. The failure of Miller's prediction led to widespread disillusionment among his followers. Many left the movement, but some continued to believe in Miller's interpretation of prophecy. This event prompted a period of reflection and reorganization among the remaining adherents, eventually leading to the formation of new religious groups, including the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
BIOJ. B. Turner
Jonathan Baldwin Turner (December 7, 1805–January 10, 1899) was an American educator, agriculturalist, and a prominent advocate for public education and agricultural colleges in the United States. He played a significant role in the development of land-grant colleges, which were established to promote education in agriculture and the mechanical arts. He also examined and critiqued the beliefs, practices, and historical claims of the Latter-day Saint movement, publishing works such as Mormonism in All Ages, which examined and questioned the claims of Joseph Smith and the origins of the Book of Mormon.
BIOClark Braden
Clark Braden (1831—1915) was an American preacher, debater, and writer known for his outspoken criticism of various religious movements, including the Latter-day Saint movement and the Spiritualist movement. Braden was particularly noted for his public debates and writings that challenged the doctrines and historical claims of these groups.
BIOSidney Rigdon
Sidney Rigdon (1793–1876) was a Campbellite minister in Pennsylvania but joined the Church in 1830. He was a gifted orator and served as a member of Joseph Smith's First Presidency. He ran as Joseph Smith's vice presidential candidate in 1844. After Joseph Smith's death, he claimed to be Joseph Smith's successor in opposition to the Quorum of the Twelve. He was excommunicated and went on to establish "The Church of Jesus Christ" in Friendship, New York, where he lived until his death.
BIOIsaac Woodbridge Riley
Isaac Woodbridge Riley (May 20, 1869–September 2, 1933) was an American scholar, historian, and author known for his critical studies on religious movements and figures. He is particularly noted for his work on Joseph Smith. Riley received his education at Amherst College and later earned a doctorate from the University of Leipzig in Germany. He was a professor of philosophy and psychology, teaching at several institutions including Vassar College and Yale University. In 1902 he published The Founder of Mormonism: A Psychological Study of Joseph Smith, Jr., which offers a critical psychological analysis of Joseph Smith. The book was one of the earliest attempts to apply psychological theories to the study of religious leaders and movements and argued that Smith's visions resulted from epileptic seizures.
BIOGeorge Reynolds
George Reynolds (January 1, 1842–August 9, 1909) was a general authority of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He was born in Marylebone, England, and joined the Church in 1856. He emigrated to Utah in 1865. He served as a secretary to the First Presidency and held various other leadership positions within the church, including serving as a member of the Church Historian’s Office. He was also an author, editor, and scholar, having written several important works, including The Story of the Book of Mormon and A Dictionary of the Book of Mormon, which were influential in the church's educational efforts. Reynolds is most famous for being the defendant in the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Reynolds v. United States (1879). He was selected by the Church to test the constitutionality of anti-polygamy laws. Reynolds was convicted of bigamy, and the case ultimately upheld the federal government's right to legislate against polygamy, setting a precedent for future legal actions against the practice. He died from meningitis in Salt Lake City on August 9, 1909.
BIOB. H. Roberts
Brigham Henry Roberts (1857-1933) was born in Warrington, Lancashire, England, to Benjamin Roberts and Ann Everington. Roberts emigrated from England in 1866 and crossed the plains to Salt Lake City. He was baptized in 1867 and settled in Bountiful. Roberts served a mission to Iowa and Nebraska, then was transferred to Tennessee in 1880. He served as president of the Eastern States Mission from 1922 to 1927 and as one of the seven Presidents of the Seventy from 1888 until his death. Roberts was an early and prolific writer on Mormonism, best known for A Comprehensive History of the Church and Studies of the Book of Mormon.
BIOEduard Meyer
Eduard Meyer (January 25, 1855–August 31, 1930) was a prominent German historian and scholar known for his extensive work in ancient history and his contributions to the study of ancient civilizations. He was born on January 25, 1855, in Hamburg, Germany. Meyer studied history, philology, and theology at the University of Bonn and the University of Leipzig. Meyer's work covered a broad range of topics in ancient history, including the histories of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Near East. He also took an academic interest in the history of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He visited Utah where he studied the origins and development of the Church. He published his landmark work on the Latter-day Saints titled Ursprung und Geschichte der Mormonen in 1912. He died on August 31, 1930, in Berlin, Germany.
BIOCharles A. Shook
Charles Augustus Shook (1876–deceased) was an American author and critic of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He pursued a career in journalism and writing, becoming known for his historical and critical works. Shook is best known for his critical writings on the Church and its foundational scriptural texts. His notable books critical of the Book of Mormon and Joseph Smith include Cumorah Revisited (1910) and The True Origin of the Book of Mormon (1914).
BIODale Morgan
Lowell Dale Morgan (December 18, 1914–March 30, 1971) was an American historian and author specializing in the history of the American West and the Latter-day Saint movement. He attended the University of Utah where he developed an interest in Western history. He wrote extensively on early Mormon history.
BIOFawn Brodie
Fawn McKay Brodie (September 15, 1915–January 10, 1981) was an American biographer and historian best known for her controversial and influential biography of Joseph Smith No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith (1945). She received a bachelor's degree in English literature from the University of Utah in 1934 and a master's degree from the University of Chicago in 1936. Her biographical work is noted for its psychological approach and critical perspective on its subjects. In May 1946, Brodie was excommunicated from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints for her work critical of Joseph Smith. Brodie married Bernard Brodie, a military strategist and scholar, and they had three children. She died of lung cancer in 1981.
BIOJoseph Fielding Smith
Joseph Fielding Smith (1876-1972) was the tenth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He became an apostle in the Quorum of the Twelve in 1910 and served in this capacity until he became a member of the First Presidency in 1965. He was the Church Historian and Recorder from 1921 until 1970. He became president of the Church following the death of David O. McKay in 1970.
BIOGordon B. Hinckley
Gordon B. Hinckley (1910-2008) was born in Salt Lake City, Utah. He served as the fifteenth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Hinckley graduated from the University of Utah in English literature. After serving a mission to Great Britain, he became a secretary under the Church's Radio, Publicity, and Missionary Literature division. He became an apostle in 1961 and then a member of the First Presidency in 1981. In 1995, he became Church president. He oversaw the expansion of temple construction, increased standards for missionary worthiness, the expansion of the Church into West Africa and East Asia (particularly South Korea).
BIOJeffrey R. Holland
Jeffrey R. Holland (1940–present) was born in St. George, Utah. He was an American educator and currently serves as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Holland received a PhD in American Studies from Yale University and went on to be the president of Brigham Young University from 1980–1989. Afterwards he was called as a member of the First Quorum of Seventy in 1989 and has served as a member of the Twelve since 1994.
BIOTad R. Callister
Tad R. Callister (born December 17, 1945) is an emeritus general authority and author within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He was was the 21st Sunday School General President of the Church from 2014 to 2019. From 2008–2014 he served in the Second Quorum of the Seventy and from 2011–2014 was in the Presidency of the Seventy. He received a bachelor's degree in accounting from Brigham Young University, a Juris Doctor degree from UCLA, and a master of laws degree from New York University. Callister is also known for his writings on doctrinal and historical topics, including The Infinite Atonement, The Inevitable Apostasy and the Promised Restoration, and A Case for the Book of Mormon.
[1]↩︎
Multiple sources, including his own obituary, confirm Smith's birthplace and year.
[2]↩︎
Smith fought in the war as a Patriot and was stationed at West Point when Benedict Arnold defected to the British in September 1780.
- Puritan Recorder reports the death of Ethan Smith.
- William B. Sprauge gives biographical sketch of Ethan Smith.
[3]↩︎
Smith studied divinity at Dartmouth, graduating in 1790. According to one biography, Smith was licensed to preach "soon after taking his degree."
[4]↩︎
Smith was pastor of the Congregational Church for seven years until June 23, 1799.
- Grant Powers describes Ethan Smith's pastorate in Haverhill, NH.
- John Hayward mentions Ethan Smith's pastorate in Haverhill and Hopkinton, New Hampshire.
[5]↩︎
Smith served as the pastor of the Congregational Church in Hopkinton, New Hampshire, until December 16, 1817.
[6]↩︎
In his 1838 history, Joseph identified his birthdate as "the year of our Lord One thousand Eight hundred and five, on the twenty third day of December, in the town of Sharon, Windsor County, State of Vermont."
- Joseph gives a brief sketch of his early life from ca. 1805-1819.
[7]↩︎
Some sources mistakenly identify Oliver's birth year as 1805, but birth records confirm 1806 as the year.
[8]↩︎
Oliver was Joseph's third cousin once removed through Lucy Mack Smith, Joseph's mother. Historian Matthew O. Richardson wrote:
It is interesting to note that Oliver’s mother, Rebecca Fuller, was the great-granddaughter of John Fuller and Mehitbel Rowley, who were the second-great-grandparents of Lucy Mack Smith (mother of Joseph Smith Jr.). This made Oliver Cowdery and Lucy Mack Smith third cousins. There is no evidence, however, that Oliver knew of his family relationship with the Smiths.
- Stanley R. Gunn describes Oliver meeting the Smith family in 1828-1829; notes a family connection.
- Matthew O. Richardson describes Oliver Cowdery's relationship to the Smith family; notes he his third cousins once removed with JS.
[9]↩︎
Poultney is just north of Wells by about 13 miles.
According to Oliver's half-sister Lucy, "When [Oliver] was three years of age Father married my mother she resided in the town of Pullney <Poultney> so Oliver was brought up in Poultney Rutland County Vermont."
[10]↩︎
William's first wife, Rebecca Fuller, Oliver's mother, had died the previous year.
- Family History of Benjamin Franklin Cowdery, a cousin of Oliver Cowdery; mentions that Benjamin was a printer.
- Biographical entry for William Cowdery on the Joseph Smith Papers website.
[11]↩︎
According to genealogical material collected by Warren Cowdery descendant Carl A. Curtis, the family moved to Williamson at this time, and it is here that Oliver's half-sister Rebecca was born on December 18, 1810.
- Genealogical material on the Cowdery family prepared by Carl C. Curtis.
- Genealogical note on Rebecca Marie Cowdery being born in Williamson, New York.
[12]↩︎
In her memoirs, Lucy Mack Smith recalled, "In 1811, we moved from Royalton <Vermont> to Lebanon <New Hampshire>."
- Lucy Mack Smith recalls her family's history of moving.
[13]↩︎
The church's records indicate that "Mrs. Keziah Cowdery [was given] a letter of recommendation." The pastor of the church at this time was Samuel Leonard, who served in that position from May 18, 1803 to June 6, 1821.
Historian Larry E. Morris noted that Keziah had joined the church in 1803.
[14]↩︎
The family returned to Rutland County at this time according to the genealogical report.
- Genealogical material on the Cowdery family prepared by Carl C. Curtis.
[15]↩︎
In his 1832 history, Joseph recalled how "at the age of about ten years my Father Joseph Smith Seignior moved to Palmyra Ontario County in the State of New York."
Lucy, in her family history, likewise reports moving to Palmyra at this time.
- Joseph recalls moving to Palmyra when he was 10 years old.
- Lucy Mack Smith recalls her family's history of moving.
[16]↩︎
The Smith farm straddled the county line with Wayne County just a few miles south of Palmyra. This is where the First Vision occurred and where Moroni first appeared to Joseph.
[17]↩︎
According to an 1852 biographical sketch, Smith was "installed over a church in Hebron, state of New York, February 26th, 1818" and "dismissed [in] August 29th, 1821."
[18]↩︎
The church record indicates that a "Rev. Mr. Hall" baptized these sisters "on the faith of their mother," who was already a member of the church. At the time of their baptism, Rebecca was about eight years old, Lucy was about four, and Phebe was about one.
- Poultney Church Records indicate Oliver Cowdery's half-sisters were baptized into the church.
- Family History of Benjamin Franklin Cowdery, a cousin of Oliver Cowdery; mentions that Benjamin was a printer.
[19]↩︎
According to the 1820 census, William was again living in Poultney by this time.
- 1820 census record for William Cowdery.
[20]↩︎
Smith replaced Samuel Leonard.
[21]↩︎
An 1869 history of the town of Wells, Vermont, where Oliver was born, says he "attended school in the District where we reside in 1821 and 1822."
- Hiland Paul and Robert Parks describe the Cowdery family history in Rutland County.
[22]↩︎
Ethan Smith was one of three men who oversaw the "editorials and communications" of the paper. The other two were Rollin C. Mallary and Harvey D. Smith.
He was also the editor of the "Missionary Herald" section of the paper.
In 1825 the Poultney Gazette was renamed the Northern Spectator.
[23]↩︎
A notice published in the Poultney Gazette in August 1823 indicates that on June 11 Smith deposited a manuscript copy of the book with clerk Jesse Gove in the District of Vermont and secured his copyright for View of the Hebrews.
This was not Smith's first book. He had already published works, including:
- A Farewell Sermon (1800)
- A Dissertation on the Prophecies Relative to Antichrist and the Last Times (1814)
- Memoirs of Mrs. Abigail Bailey (1815)
- Episcopacy Examined (1817)
[24]↩︎
On July 30, the Gazette informed readers that "a small volume" called View of the Hebrews was at press and "about to be given to the public."
View of the Hebrews was published in the same office (Smith & Shute) that also printed the Gazette. The Gazette described the contents of the volume as a "history of the Jews."
- Poultney Gazette indicates VOTH is at press.
[25]↩︎
Joseph reported in his 1838 history that Moroni first appeared to him on this date.
- Joseph reports Moroni's visitation on September 21, 1823.
[26]↩︎
On December 10 and 17, the Gazette began publishing advertisements for View of the Hebrews, which it said was "just published, and for sale at this office."
- Poultney Gazette advertises View of the Hebrews.
- Poultney Gazette publishes outline of VOTH.
[27]↩︎
By the end of December 1823, mixed reviews of View of the Hebrews had appeared in the Saratoga Sentinel and the Boston Recorder.
[28]↩︎
Throughout 1824 several newspapers ranging from Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania ran advertisements for View of the Hebrews.
[29]↩︎
Reviews for View of the Hebrews were mixed. While some authors liked the new book, others were very critical.
Ethan Smith responded in the Saratoga Sentinel to one negative reviewer.
[30]↩︎
In "about the year 1825" when he was "at the age of twenty," Oliver moved to New York, following his brother Lyman and father William. Letters waiting for Oliver, his brother Lyman, and his father in Lyons and Palmyra, Wayne County, New York, confirm that he had made the move.
[31]↩︎
Some sources claim Oliver became a printer at this time. However, Oliver's half-sister, Lucy, said between 1825 and 1829 "Oliver's occupation was clerking in a store."
Oliver himself indicated in December 1829 that he had only "recently" become a printer, most likely referring to his assistance in printing the Book of Mormon in E. B. Grandin's shop.
[32]↩︎
Writing from Poultney on April 1, 1825, in the introduction to the second edition of the book, Smith stated that he released a second edition for three reasons:
- because of "the speedy sale of the first edition of this work,"
- because he had gathered "considerable additional evidence relative to the origin of the American Indians," and
- because he wished to respond to objections to his theory.
- Introduction to the 2nd edition of VOTH.
[33]↩︎
Priest's book collected and republished a variety of writings on subjects related to religion, nature, science, and culture. One historian described:
[The book] contains a potpourri of topics ranging from natural history and philosophy to religion and literature. This work includes a verbatim extract of all the salient arguments of Ethan Smith’s thesis of the Hebraic origin of the American Indians presented in the first edition of his View of the Hebrews (1823).
- Josiah Priest republishes extracts of View of the Hebrews.
- Erich Robert Paul summarizes the holdings of the Manchester Library; notes the absence of VOTH but the presence of works that quote VOTH.
[34]↩︎
Historian Erich Robert Paul, in a 1982 article, tracked down the holdings of the Manchester library and identified Priest's book as one of its holdings.
- Erich Robert Paul summarizes the holdings of the Manchester Library; notes the absence of VOTH but the presence of works that quote VOTH.
[35]↩︎
The Smith farm and home straddled the county line between Wayne County and Ontario County (Palmyra/Manchester). This is where the First Vision occurred and where Moroni first appeared to Joseph.
[36]↩︎
According to the account of J. G. Hale,
The relations of Mr. Smith to the church seem to have gone on amicably for about 5 years. But at length—Nov. 3, 1826, a church meeting was held, at which the pastor "stated as a well known fact, that a misunderstanding had arisen between one of the deacons and himself, which they were unable amicably to adjust."
Smith was unable to resolve the misunderstanding with a church council, so a mutual decision was reached to allow Smith to resign from his pastorate.
[37]↩︎
Newspapers throughout New England and even as far south as South Carolina advertised the sale of View of the Hebrews during this time.
[38]↩︎
Various writers and authors during this time reacted to, reviewed, or cited View of the Hebrews both negatively and positively.
[39]↩︎
Smith was pastor of this church for about five years until 1832. According to one contemporary biographer, Smith "found many of the people there holding doctrines so different from his own, [so] that he could have but little satisfaction in his ministry, and after a brief sojourn among them, he resigned his charge, and accepted an appointment as City Missionary in Boston. After this, he was never settled, but laboured incessantly in vacant congregations and in important agencies."
After his retirement from being a church pastor he also worked "as an agent for various Bible societies, continuing his active labors in the ministry till his death."
[40]↩︎
In his 1838 history, Joseph said it was on this day that he obtained "the plates, the Urim and Thummim[,] and the breastplate" from the angelic messenger.
- Joseph relates how he obtained the BOM plates.
[41]↩︎
Joseph indicated in his 1832 history that he moved with his wife Emma to Harmony in December 1827, where he met with Martin Harris and copied characters from the plates for him to take to scholars in New York.
- Joseph relates how he moved to Pennsylvania to avoid persecution.
- Joseph relates how he moved to Pennsylvania.
[42]↩︎
In his 1832 and 1838 histories, Joseph discussed how he had translated at least 116 manuscript pages of text by the summer of 1828.
- JS mentions having translated 116 pages of manuscript that Martin Harris lost.
- Joseph relates the loss of the 116 pages.
[43]↩︎
Oliver and Joseph each independently confirmed that the two did not meet for the first time until April 1829. Lucy Mack Smith likewise indicated in her memoirs that Oliver did not meet Joseph until April 1829.
Lorenzo Saunders, in a late recollection, claimed Oliver first met the Smiths in 1826 after traveling to New York from Kirtland, Ohio (not Vermont). No other sources corroborate this claim.
[44]↩︎
The publication of the Book of Mormon was announced in Grandin's newspaper the Wayne Sentinel.
- Announcement of selling of the Book of Mormon in the Wayne Sentinel.
[45]↩︎
As debates about the origins of the Native Americans continued, many authors cited View of the Hebrews or the theories of Ethan Smith both positively and negatively.
[46]↩︎
In his critique, titled "Delusions," Campbell wrote concerning the authorship of the Book of Mormon:
The book professes to be written at intervals and by different persons during the long period of 1020 years. And yet for uniformity of style, there never was a book more evidently written by one set of fingers, nor more certainly conceived in one cranium since the first book appeared in human language, than this same book. If I could swear to any man's voice, face or person, assuming different names, I could swear that this book was written by one man. And as Joseph Smith is a very ignorant man and is called the author on the title page, I cannot doubt for a single moment that he is the sole author and proprietor of it.
- Alexander Campbell says Joseph is the author of the Book of Mormon.
[47]↩︎
In an article published in the Atlantic Journal, Rafinesque voiced his skepticism towards the theory that Native Americans descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel. In this article, he mentioned his strong criticisms of Ethan Smith and View of the Hebrews and then immediately pivoted to attacking the "Mormonites" and their "new religion or sect." He wrote,
A new Religion or sect has been founded upon this belief! the Mormonites, thus called after a new Alcoran, or Book of Mormon, (which is not a Jewish name.) Supposed to be written in gold letters more than 2000 years ago by Mormon leader of the American Jews. This Book which no one has seen nor read but the founder of the sect, the probable writer thereof, has been made the Bible of a new sect. I have tried in vain to procure a copy of the translation, wherein I, could certainly detect a crowd of absurdities and incongruities. Meantime a Sect of Fanatics has arisen therefrom, and wandered from New-York to Ohio and Missouri: an evident proof how false beliefs can be spread and made subservient crafty purposes.
- Constantine Samuel Rafinesque says "Mormonites" were based on the same theory as VOTH; credits JS as author of BOM.
[48]↩︎
Howe argued, based on claims by his family and neighbors, that "facts and data have been elicited, sufficient, at least to raise a strong presumption that the leading features of the 'Gold Bible' were first conceived and concocted by one Solomon Spalding, while a resident of Conneaut, Ashtabula county, Ohio."
- In Mormonism Unvailed E. D. Howe suggests that the Book of Mormon is plagiarized from Solomon Spaulding's manuscript.
[49]↩︎
Smith disagreed with Miller over issues related to the Second Coming and the interpretation of prophetic statements in the Bible related to it. Smith publicly preached against Miller in Boston, with Miller responding to Smith in written rebuttals.
[50]↩︎
Joseph republished quotations of American Antiquities by Josiah Priest that also contained explicit quotations of View of the Hebrews to argue for the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.
- Joseph Smith, as editor of Times and Seasons, publishes extracts of View Of The Hebrews.
[51]↩︎
Speaking of the Book of Mormon, Turner wrote, "We cannot conceive how any man of common sense could ever have imagined that God, or any other being, except Joe Smith, was either the author or proprietor of such a book."
- J. B. Turner argues JS is the sole author of the BOM.
[52]↩︎
See "Joseph & Hyrum Smith's Martyrdom."
[53]↩︎
Smith died in the home of his daughter and son-in-law due to complications with diabetes.
[54]↩︎
According to Phineas Young, his brother-in-law, Oliver was still firm in his faith in the Book of Mormon.
- Biographical sketch of Oliver Cowdery has him living in Poultney, VT until "about" 1825.
[55]↩︎
The Star would again cite Ethan Smith favorably in 1898.
- Millennial Star republishes an extract from View of the Hebrews.
- Millennial Star approvingly quotes Ethan Smith.
[56]↩︎
Members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS) in the latter half of the nineteenth century also cited View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
- Rudolph Etzenhouser cites VOTH in defense of the BOM.
- Isaac M. Smith (RLDS) defends the Book of Mormon by citing View of the Hebrews.
[57]↩︎
Braden singled out Priest, who republished extracts of View of the Hebrews, as a source potentially available to Sidney Rigdon and Joseph Smith. Braden argued:
On the 297th page of "The Wonders of Nature and Providence," begins an article by Mr. Priest , the author, in which he argues at great length, that the Indians are descendants of the Israelites. . . . Priest quotes in all from over forty writers, of whom over twenty were Americans, who advocated the idea that the aborigines of America were Israelites. Most of these lived and wrote before Smith was born. He proves that it was the almost universal opinion of the ministers of New England and the Middle States. . . . It was from Priest's book that Rigdon and the Pratts stole their arguments. . . . It shows that not only did Rigdon steal the book, and Joe steal the peep stone to translate it, but Mormons stole their arguments to sustain it from Priest.
- Clark Braden claims Sidney Rigdon stole ideas from Ethan Smith via Josiah Priest to write the Book of Mormon.
[58]↩︎
In an anonymous article published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer, the author quoted an unnamed grandson of Ethan Smith suggesting a connection between Ethan Smith, Solomon Spaulding, and Joseph Smith.
According to this claim, Ethan Smith had an unpublished manuscript similar to the Book of Mormon that may have influenced both Spaulding and Joseph. The paper even goes on to suggest that Spaulding and/or Joseph stole Ethan Smith's original source.
- The Cleveland Plain Dealer publishes unsourced claims that JS was influenced by Ethan Smith.
[59]↩︎
In an article titled "Evidences of the Book of Mormon," the author cited Ethan Smith's claims that strips of parchment with Hebrew written on it had been discovered in frontier America.
- The Contributor cites View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[60]↩︎
On January 6, 1902, "Elder McDowell" of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints debated "Elder Bridwell" from the Disciples of Christ (Campbellite) on the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.
According to reports on the debate, Elder Bridwell argued that Joseph Smith directly plagiarized from View of the Hebrews and other contemporary works. This is the first documented instance in which a skeptic of the Book of Mormon claimed outright plagiarism of View of the Hebrews on Joseph Smith's part.
- George Reynolds republishes extracts of VOTH in the Church's periodical Juvenile Instructor.
- Rudolph Etzenhouser reports on a debate on the Book of Mormon where View of the Hebrews was invoked as a potential source of plagiarism.
[61]↩︎
In his book, which was the published version of his dissertation through Yale University, Riley argued that there was "an abundant literature on the subject" of the Indians being descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel that could have influenced Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon. Among these was Ethan Smith's View of the Hebrews.
- Isaac Woodbridge Riley argues that JS was influenced by VOTH and other books.
[62]↩︎
Reynolds published the extracts as evidence for the authenticity of the Book of Mormon, writing:
The above is the title of a remarkable book that has lately fallen into our hands—remarkable from the fact that it produces such strong evidences in favor of the genuineness of the Book of Mormon. It is written by a reverend gentleman named Ethan Smith, the pastor of a church in Poultney, Vermont, and its second edition, the one in our possession, was issued in April, 1825; that is before the sacred plates containing Mormon's record were placed in the Prophet Joseph's hands by the Angel Moroni for translation; this latter important event having taken place in September, 1827.
- George Reynolds republishes extracts of VOTH in the Church's periodical Juvenile Instructor.
[63]↩︎
The Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association Manual for 1903–1904 republished B. H. Roberts's series New Witnesses for God as its curriculum for that year. In it, Roberts cites View of the Hebrews multiple times in his discussion of the origins of the Native Americans and the coming forth of the Book of Mormon.
- Church YMMIA manual (reprint of B. H. Roberts) cites VOTH.
[64]↩︎
In volume 3 of his series New Witnesses for God, Roberts cited material collected in View of the Hebrews and other works from people like James Adair and Josiah Priest to argue that Native Americans shared affinities with Hebrew culture and practices. After reviewing the evidence, Roberts concluded:
No one acquainted with these works could possibly regard them as being the source whence Book of Mormon incidents or customs of Book of Mormon peoples were drawn, a fact which will be more apparent after we have considered—as we shall later consider—the originality of the Book of Mormon. Since, therefore, from the very nature of all the circumstances surrounding the coming forth of the Book of Mormon, neither Joseph Smith nor his associates could possibly have become acquainted with the location of the chief centers of ancient American civilizations, nor with native American traditions and customs, it must be evident that Book of Mormon historical incidents and the customs of Book of Mormon peoples were not derived from works on American antiquities and traditions.
- B. H. Roberts argues the JS could not have derived the BOM from VOTH.
[65]↩︎
While he believed Joseph Smith stole Solomon Spaulding's lost manuscript, Braden accused Mormon writers such as Parley P. Pratt of cribbing from Ethan Smith, writing:
The Book of Mormon is "The Manuscript Found" of Solomon Spalding, revamped by Sydney Rigdon. The argument based on appeal to the Bible, in the "Voice of Warning," a Mormon classic, was plagiarized from "The Israelites in America," of Ethan Smith, or a synopsis of that work, published in "The Wonders of Nature and Providence," by Josiah Priest.
- Clark Braden argues Parley Pratt's Voice of Warning plagiarized View of the Hebrews.
- Clark Braden cites VOTH as a source of early Mormon plagiarism.
[66]↩︎
Similar to Isaac Woodbridge Riley in 1902, Meyer suggested environmental factors and sources impacted Joseph Smith and shaped the contents of the Book of Mormon.
- Eduard Meyer argues for environmental influences on the Book of Mormon, including potentially View of the Hebrews.
[67]↩︎
In his book The True Origin of the Book of Mormon, Shook wrote:
The theory of the Book of Mormon is so closely akin to the theory of the origin of the American Indians in the lost tribes, as advocated before and about 1830 by such writers as Adair, Boudinot, Smith and Priest, that it would be very easy for the witnesses, who had not heard the "Manuscript Found" read for twenty years, to confound one with the other. Even to-day we hear intelligent people, some of whom have read the Book of Mormon, unthoughtedly speak of it as a history of the lost tribes. The important thing is that the writers of both romances have the ancient inhabitants (Israelites) coming from the city of Jerusalem and under the leadership of Lehi and Nephi.
In a book published four years earlier, Shook contextualized the Book of Mormon as coming forth alongside other works that posited a Hebraic origin for the Native Americans.
- Charles A. Shook contextualizes the BOM alongside other works of the "Hebraic Indian" theory.
- Charles A. Shook suggests Ethan Smith is a source of inspiration for the Book of Mormon.
[68]↩︎
See "B. H. Roberts's Testimony."
[69]↩︎
After listing parallels he saw between the two books, Morgan concluded:
As impressive as are the parallels between View of the Hebrews and the concept and content of the Book of Mormon we need not insist upon them. It is more important that the ideas common to the two books should have been the common property of their generation. That this should be the character of Joseph's book, that it should exemplify as truly as View of the Hebrews a state of mind and a complex of ideas, the concepts of its time embedded in its pages like so many oysters in a stratum of limestone, is more significant in the evaluation of the Book of Mormon than any question of literary derivation, however decisive its bearing may be upon what the book claims to be.
- Dale Morgan posits that VOTH and the BOM emerged in the same cultural context.
[70]↩︎
In a 1939 letter to Ariel Crowley, Benjamin E. Roberts wrote that he had been "approached by scores of persons who desire to read this manuscript and have corrected any false impressions that they had gained through rumor in regard to it."
Roberts lamented, "There have been so many stories circulated about the manuscript that I have found it impossible to cope with the situation, and have, therefore, simply permitted them to die out."
He further clarified, "I have not granted any of the numerous requests of persons seeking to read the manuscript and have simply filed it away with a number of other things that Father was working on at the time of his death."
- Ben E. Roberts writes letter explaining his father's studies of the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews.
[71]↩︎
In his book Science, Tradition and the Book of Mormon, published by the Mutual Improvement Association of the Church, Josiah Hickman cited Ethan Smith in discussing Indian traditions that seemed to show an affinity with biblical practices.
- Josiah E. Hickman cites Ethan Smith as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[72]↩︎
Calling it "a basic source book for the Book of Mormon," Brodie argued that it may have "been View of the Hebrews that gave Joseph Smith the idea of writing an Indian history in the first place."
She went on to write, "It may never be proved that Joseph saw View of the Hebrews before writing the Book of Mormon, but the striking parallelisms between the two books hardly leave a case for mere coincidence."
- Fawn Brodie argues that VOTH was a source of inspiration for Joseph Smith.
[73]↩︎
A review of Brodie's book in the Deseret News in 1946 responded specifically to claims of plagiarism, noting:
Saying that it may never be proved that Joseph Smith ever saw "View of the Hebrews" before writing the Book of Mormon, on the next page she declares it "only a basic source book for the Book of Mormon," and for pages proceeds on the assumption that he got it from the legend of a buried Indian book. With admirable complacency she assumes that Joseph was acquainted with another book because years later he possessed a wholly different book by the same author. And so the assumptions multiply on and on to fill the gaps left by an absence of facts.
- Deseret News author rejects Fawn Brodie's argument that the Book of Mormon is dependent on View of the Hebrews.
[74]↩︎
According to Mervin B. Hogan, who first published Roberts's manuscript in the Rocky Mountain Mason in 1956, on October 10, 1946, Roberts's son Benjamin E. Roberts "addressed the Timpanogos Club at the Hotel Utah, discussing his father's studies. The writer was present at the meeting and examined the original penciled long-hand manuscript by B. H. Roberts who had titled it 'A Parallel.' Ben E. Roberts had a limited number of mimeographed copies of the manuscript which he distributed after his presentation."
Benjamin Roberts denied that his father lost his testimony over this material, saying in a 1939 letter that his father "found nothing in his study which reflected upon the integrity of Joseph Smith's account of the Book of Mormon."
- Mervin B. Hogan publishes B. H. Roberts' "A Parallel" study comparing View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon; describes the meeting where the manuscript was distributed.
- Ben E. Roberts writes letter explaining his father's studies of the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews.
[75]↩︎
The book was cited in an article titled "Siete Afirmaciones y Evidencias del Libro de Mormón."
- Liahona (Mexico) cites View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[76]↩︎
In a letter to G. T. Harrison, Smith stated, "B. H. Roberts wrote an article which was never published, but which has been circulated by members of his family since his death, dealing with Rev. Ethan Smith's book published in 1823. Elder Roberts did not leave a copy of his manuscript at this office."
He went on to say, "We have in this office [View of the Hebrews]" and denied that it had any significant correspondence with the Book of Mormon.
- Joseph Fielding Smith says the Church has a copy of View Of The Hebrews in its archives.
[77]↩︎
Scholars who argued for the Book of Mormon's dependence on View of the Hebrews during this time included Edward Brown, G. T. Harrison, Thomas F. O'Dea, and Robert Hullinger.
[78]↩︎
Several writers from both Latter-day Saint and RLDS backgrounds responded to charges of plagiarism during this time, including Hugh Nibley, Francis W. Kirkham, Sidney Sperry, Ariel Crowley, Charles Davies, and Roy E. Weldon.
[79]↩︎
In the September 1976 issue of the Ensign, Latter-day Saint historian Bruce D. Blumell addressed both the Spaulding theory for the origins of the Book of Mormon and the theory that Joseph was influenced by Ethan Smith. Blumell argued that the parallels often cited between the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews were weak and unpersuasive. He wrote:
Out of the multitude of ideas and events in the Book of Mormon and in the View of the Hebrews there are several broad similarities, but many more significant differences; and a correlation at some point between two things does not prove one caused the other; it may mean, for example, that both things were the result of an independent third factor. If Joseph Smith were going to borrow material to help him write the Book of Mormon, there were certainly sources other than Ethan Smith’s book to which he could have gone. Everything that is common or even vaguely similar between the Book of Mormon and the View of the Hebrews could have been borrowed more easily from the Bible or from prevailing beliefs at that time. In fact, this would have been much more likely, since Joseph Smith and his family were avid readers of the Bible.
This article was republished by Deseret Book in 1988.
- Bruce D. Blumell responds to claims that the Book of Mormon derives from View of the Hebrews in the Ensign.
- Bruce D. Blumell argues that the VOTH theory cannot adequately account for the Book of Mormon.
[80]↩︎
Authors in the Sunstone magazine such as Madison Sowell and George D. Smith exchanged various perspectives over the issue in 1981.
[81]↩︎
John W. Welch and Truman G. Madsen were especially vocal in denying that Roberts changed his position on the Book of Mormon, while George D. Smith maintained that he most likely did.
[82]↩︎
According to the encyclopedia's preface and an article in the Church News, although it was not an official Church publication, the project had the advisory oversight of members of the Quorum of the Twelve and other Church leaders.
- The Church News reports on the publication of the Encyclopedia of Mormonism.
- Preface to the Encyclopedia of Mormonism mentions the oversight of Church leaders on the project.
[83]↩︎
The author of the entry on View of the Hebrews, Robert C. Richards, outlined the contents of the book and reviewed the controversy surrounding its supposed influence on the Book of Mormon.
Richards concluded that "substantial evidence favors the position that there is little in common between the ideas and statements in View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon."
- Robert Richards reviews View of the Hebrews for the Encyclopedia of Mormonism.
[84]↩︎
In his talk titled "My Testimony" during the October 1993 General Conference, President Hinckley said:
It is strange to me that unbelieving critics must still go back to the old allegations that Joseph Smith wrote the book out of ideas gained from Ethan Smith’s View of the Hebrews and Solomon Spaulding’s manuscript. To compare the Book of Mormon with these is like comparing a man to a horse. It is true they both walk, but beyond this there is little similarity. The test of the book is in its reading.
- Gordon B. Hinckley voices his rejection of both the Solomon Spaulding and View Of The Hebrews theories for the origins of the BOM.
[85]↩︎
Brigham Young University's Religious Studies Center republished the second edition of View of the Hebrews with the intention of making it widely available to a general readership. The editor, Charles D. Tate, Jr., noted, "Because it has not been republished since 1825 (aside from photocopy printings), those wishing to study View of the Hebrews have had difficulty finding a copy. Consequently, too few have seen the book to ascertain whether the claim that it is a source of the Book of Mormon can be substantiated." Tate went on to explain:
We present here the 1825 second edition of Ethan Smith’s View of the Hebrews. This is a careful and accurate reproduction of the original, without modern editorial intervention into the text. In an attempt to make it easier for our readers to study this volume, we have identified, wherever possible, the scriptural and Josephus references Smith cited. We have also added a scripture index at the end of the book.
- 1996 BYU edition of View of the Hebrews.
[86]↩︎
In his talk "Safety for the Soul," delivered at the October 2009 General Conference of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Elder Jeffrey R. Holland said,
Failed theories about its origins have been born and parroted and have died—from Ethan Smith to Solomon Spaulding to deranged paranoid to cunning genius. None of these frankly pathetic answers for this book has ever withstood examination because there is no other answer than the one Joseph gave as its young unlearned translator.
- Jeffrey R. Holland mentions Ethan Smith in a General Conference talk.
[87]↩︎
In a BYU devotional given on November 1, 2016, Elder Callister said that after examining both View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon he was persuaded the two were different enough that this meant direct borrowing was unlikely.
He also said, "The purpose and style of these two books is most disparate. Any honest reader can determine that for himself."
- Tad R. Callister discusses Solomon Spaulding and View Of The Hebrews in a BYU speech.
[88]↩︎
The essay, titled "Critics of the Book of Mormon," says that "after decades of debate, critics have failed to demonstrate a substantial correlation between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon. Though [Oliver] Cowdery lived for a time near Ethan Smith and the book preceded the Book of Mormon by seven years, no evidence confirms that Cowdery or Joseph Smith had any knowledge of the work."
The essay goes on to describe how "the debate between critics and defenders of the Book of Mormon continues today."
- The Church's website addresses arguments that the Book of Mormon derives from Solomon Spaulding and View of the Hebrews.
[89]↩︎
Both editions of the book were published by the printing firm Smith & Shute based in Poultney, Vermont, where Smith resided at the time.
- Ethan Smith in introduction to VOTH outlines the intent of his writing.
- Introduction to the 2nd edition of VOTH.
[90]↩︎
Smith's states in View of the Hebrews that he is attempts to argue "that the American lndians are the ten tribes of Israel," and that he could prove this "from various authors and travellers among the Indians."
- Ethan Smith summarizes his case for Native Americans being the Lost Tribes.
[91]↩︎
After citing biblical passages and Native American customs and traditions, Smith argued, "No account can be given of them, but that they were derived from ancient revelation in Israel. And hence in the outcast state of the ten tribes of Israel."
- Ethan Smith summarizes his case for Native Americans being the Lost Tribes.
- Ethan Smith summarizes his arguments for the Indians being descendants of the Lost Tribes.
[92]↩︎
According to a Puritan Recorder article and biographical sketches, Ethan served as a pastor in various churches, including:
- Haverhill, Grafton County, New Hampshire;
- Hopkinton, Merrimack County, New Hampshire;
- Hebron, Washington County, New York;
- Poultney, Rutland County, Vermont; and
- Hanover, Plymouth County, Massachusetts.
[93]↩︎
The first documented instance of an argument that Joseph Smith directly plagiarized View of the Hebrews dates to 1902 in a debate between an "Elder McDowell" of the RLDS Church and an "Elder Bridwell" of the Disciples of Christ (Campbellite) on the origins of the Book of Mormon.
In that same year, Isaac Woodbridge Riley claimed View of the Hebrews was just one of many potential environmental sources that could have influenced Joseph Smith. A German scholar, Eduard Meyer, argued the same in 1912.
[94]↩︎
Fawn Brodie popularized this theory in her 1945 biography of Joseph Smith. In her book No Man Knows My History, Brodie argued, "It may never be proved that Joseph saw View of the Hebrews before writing the Book of Mormon, but the striking parallelisms between the two books hardly leave a case for mere coincidence."
Brodie's associate Dale Morgan made similar arguments in an unpublished manuscript about the history of Mormonism.
Several writers since the publication of No Man Knows My History have favorably cited Brodie in arguing for the Book of Mormon's dependence on View of the Hebrews.
[95]↩︎
Others believe the Book of Mormon is an example of the "Hebraic Indian Theory." This theory, popular in the early 1800s, said that Native Americans have Hebrew ancestors.
Several authors have written about how books from that time supported this idea and suggest that the Book of Mormon was another example of this theory.
[96]↩︎
Latter-day Saint publications as late as 1948 cited View of the Hebrews as potential evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[97]↩︎
Roberts's manuscript went unpublished during his lifetime. It was first published in 1956 in the Rocky Mountain Mason. He listed 18 potential parallels.
Roberts was writing not from his own perspective but from the perspective of what a critic of the Book of Mormon could potentially cite as parallels between the two books. In a cover letter to Richard R. Lyman accompanying the manuscript, Roberts wrote that he felt this material, "in the hands of a skillful opponent could be made, in my judgment, very embarrassing."
He also told Lyman, "It would be greatly to the advantage of our future Defenders of the Faith, if they had in hand a thorough digest of the subject matter."
[98]↩︎
Fawn Brodie published her analysis comparing View of the Hebrews with the Book of Mormon in 1945.
- Fawn Brodie argues that VOTH was a source of inspiration for Joseph Smith.
[99]↩︎
Harrison listed 50 parallels between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon in his 1961 work.
- G. T. Harrison lists parallels between VOTH and the BOM and argues for dependence.
[100]↩︎
Runnells first posted the CES Letter online in 2013 and released a revised, updated edition in 2017.
- Jeremy Runnells lists parallels between VOTH and the Book of Mormon.
[101]↩︎
In 1964, Spencer J. Palmer and William L. Knecht compared the Isaiah citations in the Book of Mormon and those quoted by Ethan Smith in View of the Hebrews and found that out of 34 chapters quoted in the two books, only nine chapters overlap (about a third of the total).
In 1971, William L. Riley completed a master's thesis that compared the Isaiah chapters in the two books. He concluded, "There was almost no evidence found which would support the idea of Joseph Smith's having used Ethan Smith as a springboard in his use of Isaiah and the other Old Testament prophets."
He noted a significant difference in how the Isaiah chapters were used in the two books:
Ethan Smith's purpose for using Isaiah and the other Old Testament prophets was to add proofs for his thesis of the Ten Tribes being the ancestors of the American Indians. The Book of Mormon prophets used Isaiah's teachings to give further instructions on the concepts of the gospel.
- Spencer J. Palmer and William L. Knecht dispute the dependance of the Book of Mormon's Isaiah chapters on View of the Hebrews.
- William L. Riley compares Isaiah quotations in View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon; finds no meaningful connection or evidence for dependence.
[102]↩︎
The book went through two editions (one in 1823 and one in 1825). It was advertised in several local newspapers in different states and was reviewed in several newspapers.
[103]↩︎
Stan Larson, an historian and former member of the Church, wrote, "There is no direct evidence that Joseph Smith ever read Ethan Smith's book in the 1820s—before the Book of Mormon text was dictated in 1829."
- Stan Larson reviews the VOTH controversy and discusses Thomas Stuart Ferguson's loss of faith.
[104]↩︎
In 1842, Joseph Smith, as editor of the Times and Seasons, published extracts from Josiah Priest's book American Antiquities (first published in the mid-1830s). Priest's book, in turn, republished extracts of View of the Hebrews.
These extracts of the extracts of View of the Hebrews appeared in the Times and Seasons as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
- Joseph Smith, as editor of Times and Seasons, publishes extracts of View Of The Hebrews.
- Josiah Priest quotes VOTH in his American Antiquities.
[105]↩︎
Joseph was born in Sharon, Vermont, in 1805. Ethan Smith lived and ministered in Hopkinton, New Hampshire, from 1800 until 1817.
[106]↩︎
Both Joseph and his mother mentioned that the Smith family moved to Palmyra when Joseph was about ten years old.
Around that time, William B. Sprauge recorded, "In the winter of 1818, [Ethan Smith] took the pastoral charge of the Presbyterian church in Hebron, N. Y."
[107]↩︎
Oliver's stepmother and half-sisters became members of the Congregational Church in Poultney years before Ethan Smith took pastoral charge over the congregation.
- Poultney Church Record indicates Keziah Cowdery, Oliver Cowdery's stepmother, joined the congregation in May 1811.
- Poultney Church Records indicate Oliver Cowdery's half-sisters were baptized into the church.
[108]↩︎
Oliver would have been a teenager when Ethan Smith was the pastor in Poultney, but his religious affiliation before he joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1830 is unknown.
Nineteenth-century biographers of Oliver, including his family members, do not mention any churches he was part of before meeting Joseph Smith. Historian Larry Morris noted, "No document has been found linking Oliver Cowdery to the Congregational Church or the writings of Ethan Smith."
Another historian, Emily A. Ross with the Poultney Historical Society, concluded from her studies, "I could find no specific reference to Oliver Cowdery, but he was undoubtedly in the Rev. Mr. Smith's congregation if he did not leave Poultney until 1825."
While mentioning the baptism of Oliver's three half-sisters in the church records, Ross noted there was "no further reference to any Mr. Cowdry," and there was "no record of Oliver being exposed to Ethan Smith's writings."
[109]↩︎
John L. Brookes speculated, "It is possible that Oliver Cowdery helped to print Ethan Smith's View of the Hebrews. This text was printed on a press in Poultney, and Cowdery had had experience as a printer."
Another author, Richard S. Van Wagoner, wrote, "Although it is speculative, young Cowdery may have been even employed by Smith & Shute, the Poultney firm that printed View of the Hebrews."
- Richard S. Van Wagoner speculates that Oliver Cowdery provided JS with VOTH and may have helped print the book.
- John L. Brooke postulates a connection between Ethan Smith and Oliver Cowdery.
[110]↩︎
Historians Matthew Roper and Larry E. Morris have concluded these newspaper sources most likely were confusing Oliver for his relative Benjamin Franklin Cowdery who was a printer.
Oliver's first exprience with printing seems to be with the printing of the Book of Mormon with E. B. Grandin's printshop. In a December 1829 letter to Joseph Smith, Oliver wrote, "It may look rather Strange to you to find that I have So Soon become a printer."
[111]↩︎
Lucy Cowdery Young recalled, "Olivers occupation was clerking in a store until 1829 when he taught the District school in the town of Manchester nine miles from Fathers."
- Lucy Cowdery Young, Oliver's half-sister, gives short biography of Oliver Cowdery; mentions he left for NY in circa 1825 and met the Smiths circa 1829.
[112]↩︎
One author in the 1970s wrote, "Oliver Cowdery, a cousin of Joseph's and his associate in the production of the Book of Mormon, lived in Poultney, Vermont, at the time the Rev. Ethan Smith's View of the Hebrews was published, and his step-mother was a member of the Rev. Smith's congregation. Cowdery could easily have supplied Joseph with the family copy of the work."
Other writers have imagined similar scenarios in which Cowdery supplied Joseph with a copy of View of the Hebrews.
[113]↩︎
Oliver, Joseph, and Lucy Mack Smith independently corroborated the date of Oliver first meeting Joseph.
Lorenzo Saunders, a neighbor in Palmyra, claimed Oliver was secretly meeting with the Smiths as early as 1826, but there is no evidence for this claim.
[114]↩︎
A Community of Christ historian, Phillip R. Legg suggested that Oliver Cowdery had known about View of the Hebrews and this prompted him to want to meet Joseph once he heard about Joseph's claims to having gold plates that told of an ancient people in the Americas.
Non-Latter-day Saint historian Paul C. Gutjahr agreed with the theory and wrote:
Cowdery was almost certainly familiar with the book, and it probably catalyzed his passionate interest in Joseph’s manuscript, which also posited a link between Native Americans and the ancient Hebrews. Joseph soon convinced Cowdery of the importance of the plates and had him replace Emma as his primary scribe.
- Phillip R. Legg describes family relationship between the Cowderys and Smiths; describes Oliver's early childhood; mentions connection to Ethan Smith.
- Paul C. Gutjahr briefly summarizes Oliver Cowdery meeting Joseph; suggests Oliver may have wanted to meet Joseph because of View of the Hebrews.
[115]↩︎
By April 1829, Joseph had already produced (and lost) at least 116 pages of manuscript of the translation of the Book of Mormon.
- Joseph relates the loss of the 116 pages.
- JS mentions having translated 116 pages of manuscript that Martin Harris lost.
[116]↩︎
One parallel often cited is Ethan Smith's discussion of the Native Americans having sacred objects that resembled the Israelite high priest's Urim and Thummim.
Some have argued that this parallels the Urim and Thummim of the Book of Mormon. However, the Book of Mormon never uses the phrase "Urim and Thummim." The instrument Joseph Smith in Joseph Smith–History 1:35 described as a "Urim and Thummim" are referred to as "interpreters" in the Book of Mormon (e.g., at Mosiah 8:13; 28:20).
Additionally, the "Urim and Thummim" described by Ethan Smith is not used for translating sacred records the way the Nephite "interpreters" are in the Book of Mormon.
Another example is Quetzalcoatl in the View of the Hebrews. Some have argued that Quetzalcoatl is a Christ figure that appears in the Book of Mormon, however there is no mentioned of Quetzalcoatl in the Book of Mormon. And Ethan Smith argued that Quetzalcoatl was Moses.
[117]↩︎
For example, Latter-day Saint critic Jeremy Runnells cites "pride denounced" as a parallel shared between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon. However, pride is denounced in most major religions and in many works of literature across multiple cultures. For example, it is denounced in the Bible at Proverbs 16:18–19, as well as in the Quran at Surah 39:72, which says the proud will suffer in hell.
Another relatively superficial example is the suggestion that the Book of Mormon name "Ether" is was inspired by the name "Ethan Smith."
- Jeremy Runnells lists parallels between VOTH and the Book of Mormon.
- Surah 39:72 of the Quran says the arrogant/proud will suffer in hell.
[118]↩︎
Ethan Smith said that the lost Ten Tribes were brought "into a further country, where never mankind dwelt," which seems to parallel the language of Ether 2:5 that says the Lord led the Jaredites "into that quarter where there never had man been." However, Smith was quoting 2 Esdras 13:40–41, which is from the Apocrypha in the Bible.
In looking at these two passages, Blake Ostler explains:
Even this similarity does not present identical phraseology and contains significant dissimilarities, for the Jaredites obey God by going into the uninhabited land while the ten tribes disobey God by doing so. Further, any similarity in language could be explained by mutual dependence on 2 Esdras which was included in Joseph Smith's Bible.
[119]↩︎
In a speech delivered in 1961 to the Society of Biblical Literature, Samuel Sandmel, a biblical scholar, defined parallelomania as the "extravagance among scholars which first overdoes the supposed similarity in passages and then proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction."
- Samuel Sandmel defines "parallelomania."
[120]↩︎
The Royal Museum of Greenwich website asks, "How was Morgan Robertson so able to predict a disaster that would not happen for another 14 years with so much apparent accuracy?"
Beyond the prophetic naming of the Titan, author Morgan Robertson also accurately predicted the largest vessel afloat, carrying the minimum number of lifeboats required under the current regulations, and able to travel as swiftly as any ship in service. With all these similarities, it may not come as a shock that the Titan also has a fatal encounter with an iceberg, claiming the lives of nearly all of the 3,000 on-board.
- Royal Museums Greenwich website describes the parallels between the novel Futility and the sinking of the Titanic.
[121]↩︎
Time magazine, in a 1964 article, listed the following as some of the parallels between Lincoln and Kennedy:
Lincoln was elected in 1860, Kennedy in 1960. Both were deeply involved in the civil rights struggle. The names of each contain seven letters. The wife of each President lost a son when she was First Lady. Both Presidents were shot on a Friday. Both were shot in the head, from behind, and in the presence of their wives. Both presidential assassins were shot to death before they could be brought to trial. The names John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald each contain 15 letters. Lincoln and Kennedy were succeeded by Southerners named Johnson. Tennessee's Andrew Johnson, who followed Lincoln, was born in 1808; Texan Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.
- Time Magazine explores the parallels between Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy.
[122]↩︎
The Time magazine article listing the coincidences between the lives of Lincoln and Kennedy also note a number of false parallels or divergences:
As these coincidences have been circulated, the facts have been embellished more than a little to fit. Many of the lists have it that Booth was born in 1839 and Oswald in 1939. Booth, in fact, was born in 1838. Some accounts point out that Lee Oswald shot Kennedy from a warehouse and ran to a theater, while Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and ran to a warehouse. But Booth's refuge, where he was killed twelve days after shooting Lincoln, was in fact a tobacco-curing barn.
- Time Magazine explores the parallels between Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy.
[123]↩︎
Bruce Martin, writing in Skeptical Inquirer, pointed out:
But if we compare other relevant attributes we fail to find coincidences. Lincoln and Kennedy were born and died in different months, dates, and states, and neither date is 100 years apart. Their ages at death were different, as were the names of their wives. Of course, had any of these features corresponded for the two presidents, it would have been included in the list of "mysterious" coincidences. For any two people with reasonably eventful lives it is possible to find coincidences between them. Two people meeting at a party often find some striking coincidence between them, but what it is—birthdate, hometown, etc.—is not predicted in advance.
- Bruce Martin argues for why the Kennedy-Lincoln parallels are probably just coincidences.
[124]↩︎
Leaves of Grass was written over 10 years after the death of Joseph Smith. Lindsay lists "parallels far richer than other writers and scholars have proposed using other texts."
- Jeff Lindsay's satirical post comparing the "parallels" between the BOM and Leaves of Grass.
[125]↩︎
Diane Worth, writing in the Journal of Book of Mormon Studies in 2002, argued that "some proposed links between Jesus Christ and Quetzalcoatl remain quite plausible while others are now questionable" and concluded:
Despite discrepancies among Quetzalcoatl myths in colonial sources and the fairly good mythology and symbolism in pre-Columbian inscriptions and iconography, we are left with several crucial points about Quetzalcoatl and the Maya Maize God that apply to Christ’s premortal state, his mission on earth, and his role in the hereafter. Are there plausible links? Yes. Are there significant differences? Again, yes. This review should help us to see a complex picture of continuities and discontinuities between Quetzalcoatl and the Savior. Because parts of the picture are rather faint, there is a need for caution in our studies when we approach the intriguing and mysterious figures of Quetzalcoatl and the Maya Maize God and attempt to draw connections between them and the resurrected Jesus.
- Diane E. Wirth argues for parallels between Jesus Christ and Quetzalcoatl.
[126]↩︎
Book of Mormon researcher Brant Gardner argued in a 1986 article:
Stripping away the influence of the Spanish, Quetzalcoatl becomes once again a very Aztec; god, complete with the duality of good and bad which characterizes the Aztec pantheon. The moral and political climate of the Conquest generated pressures which selected certain facets of the native tradition and so presented them as to appear Christian.. The early Spanish fathers found such evidences behind every tree, but no bough was more fruitful than Quetzalcoatl. The centuries which have passed have expanded those themes to the point that our popular conceptions of the deity have replaced the native understanding of their own god. Personally, I am satisfied that a reconstruction of the native Quetzalcoatl leaves rio room for an identification with any of the popular suggestions.
- Brant A. Gardner deconstructs Christianized images of Quetzalcoatl; argues the parallels with Christ are illusory.
[127]↩︎
Adair was a missionary for many years before publishing this book. He wrote, "From the most exact observations I could make in the long time I traded among the Indian Americans, I was forced to believe them lineally descended from the Israelites."
- James Adair writes on the Native Americans; posits their descent from the Lost Tribes.
[128]↩︎
Boudinot was a Founding Father of the United States. Besides his extensive political work, he was also a founder of the American Bible Society. He wrote:
The writer will not determine with any degree of positiveness on the fact, that these aborigines of our country are, past all doubt, the descendants of Jacob, as he wishes to leave every man to draw the conclusion from the facts themselves. But he thinks he may without impeachment of his integrity or prudence, or any charge of over credulity, say, that were a people to be found, with demonstrative evidence that their descent was from Jacob, it could hardly be expected, at this time, that their languages, manners, customs and habits, with their religious rites, should discover greater similarity to those of the ancient Jews and of their divine law, without supernatural revelation, or some miraculous interposition, than the present nations of American Indians have done, and still do, to every industrious and intelligent enquirer.
- Elias Boudinot's 1816 book A Star in the West attempts to identify the Native Americans as descendants of the Lost Tribes.
[129]↩︎
Priest's book is largely a compilation of other sources, including Ethan Smith's View of the Hebrews. Prefacing his republication of Ethan Smith's work, Priest noted:
In the following remarks proofs are adduced which are thought sufficient to identify the Aborigines of our country as the descendants of the ancient ten tribes of Israel who were carried into captivity 2500 years ago. This branch of the Hebrew family have long been "outcasts" out of sight; or unknown as Hebrews.—The questions arise, are they in existence, as a distinct people? If so, who, or where are they? These are queries of great moment, at this period, when the time of their restoration is drawing near.
- Josiah Priest republishes extracts of View of the Hebrews.
[130]↩︎
Worsley cited Ethan Smith and other (ancient and modern) writers to argue that the Native Americans were descendants of ancient Israelites.
- Israel Worsley reappropriates material from View of the Hebrews in his 1828 book on the Native Americans.
[131]↩︎
Simon quoted Ethan Smith to sustain her own argument that the Native Americans descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel.
- Barbara Anne Simon cites VOTH in arguing for the Hebraic Indian theory.
[132]↩︎
Bennett was a Belarusian Jew who followed Ethan Smith in arguing the Lost Tribes migrated to the New World. He wrote:
Thus respecting their progeniture, they all inform us, agreeably to their traditions, that their primitive parent had twelve sons, of whose descendants they are a portion; -that their forefathers, having transgressed against God, were made captives, and carried off far from their own country; -that 2500 years ago their ancestors left the country of their captivity, proceeded towards the East, crossed a river of hardened water, (viz. Behring's Straits,) and settled themselves in that country (America).
- Solomon Bennett positive cites VOTH in his book on the Hebrew language.
[133]↩︎
Noah was an American Jew who gave several arguments for the Native Americans being "the descendants of the dispersed tribes" of Israel.
- Mordecai M. Noah argues that Native Americans descend from the Lost Tribes.
[134]↩︎
Latter-day Saint historian Francis W. Kirkham compared the Book of Mormon with contemporary works speculating that Native Americans were descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel. He argued that it's unlikely a rural farmhand like Joseph Smith would have had easy access to these books:
Books were few and expensive. Those advertised consist of well-known English and American writers in the fields of history, adventure, travel and beginning books in invention. Religious books consisted of the Bible, Bible commentaries, sermons and such books as Pilgrim's Progress. It is possible these books concerning "The Lost Ten Tribes of Israel" were in the hands of a few such as ministers, but hardly in the possession of such persons as Joseph Smith, David Whitmer, Oliver Cowdery, or Martin Harris. . . . Purpose, language, diction, subject matter are all different. These early American writers have kept for us valuable evidence that the Indians are in all probability descended from the Hebrews but surely Joseph Smith received no help from them in writing the Book of Mormon.
- Francis W. Kirkham reviews the argument that Joseph was influenced by View of the Hebrews and other works.
- Francis W. Kirkham argues against Book of Mormon dependence on View of the Hebrews.
[135]↩︎
Historian Erich Robert Paul explained that the local library had a wide range of books, including literature, history, religion, biography, adventure, science, philosophy, reference, military events, anthropology, and geography.
Among these was a copy of Joseph Priest's book, The Wonders of Nature and Providence Displayed, which covered topics like natural history, philosophy, religion, and literature. It also contained, Paul noted, "a verbatim extract of all the salient arguments of Ethan Smith’s thesis of the Hebraic origin of the American Indians presented in the first edition of his View of the Hebrews (1823)."
- Erich Robert Paul summarizes the holdings of the Manchester Library; notes the absence of VOTH but the presence of works that quote VOTH.
- Josiah Priest republishes extracts of View of the Hebrews.
[136]↩︎
Historian Erich Robert Paul noted that although anyone who paid the membership fees could use the library, there are no records of Joseph or any early Church member doing so. He also noted that Joseph didn’t need to travel five miles to Manchester when Palmyra, only two miles away, had bookstores and a library he could use.
John W. Welch, a Latter-day Saint scholar, also pointed out that most of the translation of the Book of Mormon took place in Harmony, Pennsylvania, where there was no local library. He wrote:
Even if Joseph had wanted to pause to check his details against reputable sources, to scrutinize the latest theories, to learn about scholarly biblical interpretations or Jewish customs, or to verify any Book of Mormon claims against the wisdom or theologies of his day-even if he had wanted to go to a library to check such things (something he showed no inclination to do until later)—there simply was no library anywhere nearby for him to use. While this is only a piece of circumstantial evidence for the Book of Mormon, it is still a piece. Perhaps a significant one.
- Erich Robert Paul summarizes the holdings of the Manchester Library; notes the absence of VOTH but the presence of works that quote VOTH.
- John W. Welch points to the absence of a library in Harmony, PA, during the time of the translation of the Book of Mormon.
[137]↩︎
Joseph's mother Lucy, in her 1845 memoir, noted that as a boy he "was much less inclined to the perusals of books then any of the rest of our children, but far more given to meditation and deep study."
- Lucy Mack Smith recalls JS not being "inclined" to reading books as a young man.
[138]↩︎
Ethen Smith was critical of Miller's arguments for the timing of the Second Coming and interpreting certain biblical passages in the book of Daniel. This prompted sparring between the two in print and in public discourses.
[139]↩︎
In 1842, Joseph, acting as editor of the Times and Seasons, cited material from View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon. Subsequent publications in the Millennial Star, the Contributor, and in Church manuals repeated this idea.
[140]↩︎
Community of Christ writers also historically cited View of the Hebrews as evidence for the Book of Mormon. After skeptics began arguing it was a source of plagiarism, Community of Christ writers rebutted these charges.
[141]↩︎
Church leaders including Gordon B. Hinckley, Jeffrey R. Holland, Neal A. Maxwell, and Tad R. Callister have all mentioned View of the Hebrews or Ethan Smith in talks or other publications and have rejected claims that the Book of Mormon must have been derived from them.
[142]↩︎
Latter-day Saint scholars including Hugh Nibley, John W. Welch, Brant Gardner, and others have argued that the parallels commonly cited between the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews are largely incidental or weak, and that the differences between the books far outweigh any similarities.
[143]↩︎
For example, in 1951, Francis W. Kirkham said, "There is no proof that Joseph Smith or his scribes knew about the book written by Ethan Smith."
Similarly, Bruce D. Blumell wrote, "There is no evidence that Joseph Smith knew about View of the Hebrews before 1842."
- Francis W. Kirkham argues against Book of Mormon dependence on View of the Hebrews.
- Bruce D. Blumell responds to claims that the Book of Mormon derives from View of the Hebrews in the Ensign.
[144]↩︎
In 1985, John W. Welch catalogued over 80 places where the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews significantly diverge from each other in content, argument, style, or perspective.
Both Latter-day Saint (Michael Griffith, Stephen Gibson, John Welch, and John Gee) and Community of Christ historians (Charles Davies and Roy Weldon) have argued that too many of the arguments and examples used by Ethan Smith to establish the Hebraic origins for Native Americans are absent from the Book of Mormon.
[145]↩︎
In 1951, Francis W. Kirkham said, "There is no proof that Joseph Smith or his scribes knew about the book written by Ethan Smith."
Similarly, Bruce D. Blumell wrote, "There is no evidence that Joseph Smith knew about View of the Hebrews before 1842."
A non-Mormon writer, William J. Whalen, mentioned, "The evidence we have doesn't allow us to say that it was copied from a manuscript by Spaulding, Ethan Smith, or Rigdon. There are too many gaps that will probably never be filled."
Those who think Joseph was influenced by View of the Hebrews also note this. In 1945, Fawn Brodie said, "It might never be proven that Joseph saw 'View of the Hebrews' before writing the Book of Mormon, but the many similarities between the two books are hard to ignore."
Stan Larson agreed, "There is no direct proof that Joseph Smith ever read Ethan Smith's book in the 1820s—before he dictated the Book of Mormon text in 1829."
[146]↩︎
Scholars such as Hugh Nibley, Ariel Crowley, Sidney Sperry, and Blake Ostler have looked at the commonly cited parallels between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon and have emphasized how many of them are weak or too general.
Ostler, after reviewing the parallels, noted, "No single parallel presents identical language or ideas expressed so similarly as to suggest direct dependence."
Sperry also concluded:
It is true that there are some obvious parallels between Ethan Smith's book and the Book of Mormon, but parallels can be drawn between the Nephite record and many other early American books. These parallels prove nothing concerning the origin of the Book of Mormon. Attention should be called to the numerous differences between ideas found in the Book of Mormon and those found in Ethan Smith's book and other books similar in purpose to his.
[147]↩︎
In 1985, John W. Welch cataloged over 80 places where the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews significantly diverge from each other in content, argument, style, or perspective. Welch concluded:
In sum, in the face of all the differences between VH and the Book of Mormon, these few slender similarities pale. If VH provided any inspiration for the Book of Mormon, it did not provide much. Even the position that Joseph Smith “could have used [VH] as a rich source of ideas for some structural and narrative aspects of the Book of Mormon" . . . seems implausible in light of the fact that the Book of Mormon contradicts and ignores VH on so many important occasions.
- John W. Welch lists a variety of "unparallels" between View of the Hebrews and the Book of Mormon to argue against plagiarism or dependence.
[148]↩︎
As Michael T. Griffith wrote:
In the June 1 and June 15 issues of the 1842 Times and Seasons there appeared printed extracts from Josiah Priest's book, American Antiquities (1838 edition), which cites and quotes passages from VOTH. Priest's book was cited as evidence for the Book of Mormon. At that time, Joseph Smith was the editor of the Times and Seasons. A natural question arises: If Joseph Smith had copied from VOTH, would he have risked drawing attention to it by publicly quoting from a book which contained extracts from it? This would have indeed been extremely puzzling behavior if the Prophet had borrowed from VOTH, especially if it had been his "foundational source"!
Bruce D. Blumell similarly argued in an article published in the Ensign, "If the Prophet had originally used Ethan Smith’s book to help him write the Book of Mormon, almost certainly he would not have later published a quote from it to illustrate a point, since plagiarists normally keep their sources a secret."
Terryl Givens in his book By the Hand of Mormon likewise noted, "A plagiarizing Joseph must be unique among frauds in providing the public with the source of his own plagiarism before anyone else had seen the connection."
Michael Ash sarcastically described Joseph publishing extracts from View of the Hebrews as "a very con-man-like thing to do."
[149]↩︎
Both Latter-day Saint (Michael Griffith, Stephen Gibson, John Welch, and John Gee) and Community of Christ historians (Charles Davies and Roy Weldon) have argued that too many of the arguments and examples used by Ethan Smith to establish the Hebraic origins for Native Americans are absent from the Book of Mormon.
As Gibson concluded, this seems to indicate that "parallels between the two books to be the exception rather than the rule."
Welch also noted, "The points of resemblance are neither numerous nor startling, but also . . . the differences far outweigh the similarities. Why would Joseph have contradicted and ignored View of the Hebrews at virtually every turn, if indeed he gave it basic credence?"
[150]↩︎
Francis W. Kirkham as early as 1935 concluded after examining the Book of Mormon with View of the Hebrews and other works promoting the Hebraic Indian Theory that "purpose, language, diction, subject matter are all different."
Richard Bushman wrote in 1984 that "it would be a mistake to see the book as an imitation of these earlier works" since "comparison of the two works reveals too many fundamental differences."
In his 2005 biography of Joseph Smith, Bushman wrote:
But for readers of Ethan Smith, the Book of Mormon was a disappointment. It was not a treatise about the origins of the Indians, regardless of what early Mormons said. The Book of Mormon never used the word "Indian." The book had a different form and purpose than the earlier works on Indian origins. The assembling of anthropological evidence was the central endeavor of View of the Hebrews and the books that preceded it. Ethan Smith and his predecessors looked for signs of a deteriorating Jewish culture in Indian society, ticking off instances such as similarities in sacrifices and feasts. The Book of Mormon gave almost no attention to Old Testament parallels; its prophets taught pure Christianity. View of the Hebrews was an anthropological treatise, combining scripture and empirical evidence to propound a theory. The Book of Mormon was a narrative, not a treatise. Anyone looking for a scientific investigation of Indian origins in its pages would have found ancient American Christianity instead.
[151]↩︎
Isaac Woodbridge Riley was the first non-Latter-day academic writer to suggest that Joseph was aware of the contents of View of the Hebrews by either direct firsthand reading of the book or through more generalized cultural transmission. Since his book appeared in 1902, other authors have followed this theory.
[152]↩︎
This is the name sometimes given to the theory prominent in the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries that Native Americans were descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel.
- Elizabeth Fenton reviews the View of the Hebrews controversy as it relates to the Book of Mormon.
- Elizabeth Fenton argues the Book of Mormon is in some ways dissimilar from contemporary texts such as View of the Hebrews.
[153]↩︎
A number of non-Latter-day Saint academic writers believe the Book of Mormon is a more unique manifestation of the more general Hebraic Indian Theory that was circulating in the early nineteenth century. Ronald Helfrich Jr., for example, has written,
While it is possible that Smith knew of the View of the Hebrews and could have borrowed from it, it is equally possible, if not more likely, that whatever parallels exist between the Book of Mormon and the View of the Hebrews are reflective of the common culture milieu and the common cultural pedigree of the two rather than an instance of direct borrowing.
[154]↩︎
Hugh Nibley wrote three articles for the Improvement Era that discussed View of the Hebrews. One included a brief mention, while the other two contained a more in-depth review into Fawn Brodie's arguments.
[155]↩︎
In 1964, Spencer J. Palmer and William L. Knecht wrote "View of the Hebrews: Substitute for Inspiration?" for BYU Studies. In it, they disputed the theory that the Book of Mormon's Isaiah chapters are dependent on View of the Hebrews.
- Spencer J. Palmer and William L. Knecht dispute the dependance of the Book of Mormon's Isaiah chapters on View of the Hebrews.
[156]↩︎
In 1976, Bruce D. Blumell wrote the article “I Have a Question” for the September issue of the Ensign. In it, he responded to the idea that the Book of Mormon and View of the Hebrews could be connected, writing:
Out of the multitude of ideas and events in the Book of Mormon and in the View of the Hebrews there are several broad similarities, but many more significant differences; and a correlation at some point between two things does not prove one caused the other; it may mean, for example, that both things were the result of an independent third factor.
Truman G. Madsen also reviewed this theory, specifically looking at B. H. Roberts's study of View of the Hebrews.
- Bruce D. Blumell responds to claims that the Book of Mormon derives from View of the Hebrews in the Ensign.
- Truman G. Madsen reviews B. H. Roberts's study of VOTH in the Ensign.
[157]↩︎
Robert Richards reviewed View of the Hebrews for the Encyclopedia of Mormonism. He opened the section on Ethan Smith's book by describing its thesis before noting the following:
It is one of several books reflecting the popular fascination at the time of Joseph Smith with the question of Indian origins. While some have claimed it to be a source for the Book of Mormon, no direct connections between this book and the Book of Mormon have been demonstrated.
- Robert Richards reviews View of the Hebrews for the Encyclopedia of Mormonism.
[158]↩︎
For example, President Gordon B. Hinckley and Elder Jeffrey R. Holland both mentioned Ethan Smith and View of the Hebrews in conference talks delivered in 1993 and 2009.
Elder Neal A. Maxwell also mentioned View of the Hebrews in a 1996 book and argued:
One would no more read Ethan Smith's book for doctrine than he would read the telephone directory in search of a plot. Trying to compare View of the Hebrews or Spaulding's Manuscript Story with the Book of Mormon is like trying to make something of the similarities in the musical notes used in both 'Chopsticks' and Beethoven's Fifth Symphony!
In 2016, Elder Tad R. Callister of the Seventy delivered a BYU address that mentioned Solomon Spaulding and Ethan Smith.
[159]↩︎
The BYU edition of View of the Hebrews, published in 1996, is, as explained in the introduction, "a careful and accurate reproduction of the original, without modern editorial intervention into the text."
- 1996 BYU edition of View of the Hebrews.
[160]↩︎
The Church History Library catalogue lists three copies of View of the Hebrews in its holdings (one copy of the 1823 edition and two copies of the 1825 edition). The Harold B. Lee Library at BYU lists multiple physical and microfilm copies of the book in its holdings.
- Church History Library shows holdings from View of the Hebrews.
- BYU library catalogues lists copies of View of the Hebrews in its holdings.
[161]↩︎
Truman G. Madsen and John W. Welch, two Latter-day Saint scholars and historians, have written on the background of Roberts's studies of the Book of Mormon.
[162]↩︎
See "B. H. Roberts's Testimony."

Primary Source	Parallel Source	Comments
The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility (1898)	Sinking of the Titanic (1912)	Morgan Robertson's novel The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility, originally published in 1898 has many uncanny similarities between it and the sinking of HMS Titanic in 1912, even though the two things were unrelated.[120]
Abraham Lincoln Assassination (1864)	John F. Kennedy Assassination (1964)	There are a number of striking parallels in the lives and assassinations of Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy.[121] However, there are also many false parallels between them.[122][123]
Leaves of Grass (1855)	The Book of Mormon (1830)	Latter-day Saint writer Jeff Lindsay, in a satirical essay, has argued that Joseph Smith plagiarized the collection of poems Leaves of Grass by Walt Whitman because of the many "parallels" between the poems and the Book of Mormon.[124]
Jesus Christ	Quetzalcoatl	Some have seen parallels between the depiction of Jesus Christ in the Bible and the Book of Mormon and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl.[125] However, these apparent parallels may be the result of Spanish missionaries and chroniclers consciously trying to make these two figures seem more similar than they actually are.[126]