Race in the Pearl of Great Price

The Book of Moses and the Book of Abraham in the Pearl of Great Price are inspiring Latter-day Saint scripture, but what do they say about race? Do they align with what other ancient texts say?

What does the Pearl of Great Price say about race?

In its recounting of the Genesis story, the Book of Moses uses the words "black" and "blackness" in association with two groups of people: the "children of Canaan" and the "seed of Cain."[1] The Book of Abraham discusses what might be that first group of people, but doesn't mention "blackness."[2]

Race is not referenced in the other parts of the Pearl of Great Price—the Book of Abraham facsimiles,[3] the Articles of Faith, Joseph Smith—Matthew, and Joseph Smith—History.

What does the Book of Moses say about race?

Chapter seven of the Book of Moses says a "blackness came upon all the children of Canaan" and also that "the seed of Cain were black."[4] However, it is unclear whether this "blackness" refers to race. Moses 7 reports that the seed of Cain[BIO] was separated from the seed of Adam[BIO][5] and that Enoch[BIO] was not to preach to the people of Canaan.[6]

So what does the Book of Moses mean by "blackness" and "black"?

The Book of Moses was given by revelation to Joseph Smith,[BIO][7] and he did not give an explanation for these terms.

"Blackness" and "black" could refer to skin color.[8] It might also refer to countenance, which was common in ancient texts.[9] Or it could refer to people of African ancestry, as that usage was common in nineteenth-century America.[10] It might be referring to a non-literal "spiritual blackness,"[11] or it could be referring to something else entirely.[12]

Did early Church leaders believe African persons descended from Cain?

Yes.[13] In 1842 Joseph Smith referred to Black people in his journal as "the Sons of Cain"[14] and Brigham Young taught in 1849 that "Africans" were "cursed descendants of Cain."[15] The idea that Black people were descended from Cain was a commonly accepted idea throughout nineteenth-century America.[16]

Related Question

Did Black members receive temple ordinances during Joseph Smith's lifetime?

How do ancient Biblical accounts describe Cain's "countenance" after the Lord rejected his sacrifice in Genesis 4:5?

They vary. The earliest fragment of Genesis 4:5 in the Dead Sea Scrolls[17] and the Masoretic Hebrew text of the Old Testament[18] both describe Cain's "countenance falling." Neither account references his skin color. The Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible) does not use the word "black" to describe Cain's countenance[19] nor do the Aramaic Targums.[20]

However, the texts corresponding to Genesis 4:5 in the Syriac Peshitta[21] and the Armenian Adam-book[22]describe the appearance of Cain as black, which could be interpreted to refer to the color black. The Animal Apocalypse of 1 Enoch[23] describes Cain as a "black calf" but does not specifically refer to the events of Genesis 4:5.

Ancient texts related to Genesis 4:5

Approximate date text was written or translated[24]	Approximate date of manuscript[25]	Ancient text and translation	Notes
800–600 B.C.E.	1008 C.E.	Masoretic Hebrew text:[26] לְקַיִן מְאֹד, וַיִּפְּלוּ פָּנָיו English translation: And Cain's face fell greatly.	Does not indicate "blackness."
800–600 B.C.E.	30–68 C.E.	4Q2 Genesis Hebrew text:[27] לְקַיִן מְאֹד, וַיִּפְּלוּ פָּנָיו English translation: And Cain's countenance fell greatly.	The text is fragmented and incomplete, but it does not seem to indicate blackness.
300s B.C.E.	200s C.E.	Greek Septuagint text:[28] καὶ ἐλύπησε[ν] τὸν Καιν λίαν καὶ συνέπεσε(ν) τῷ προσώπῳ English translation: And Cain was exceedingly sorrowful, and his countenance fell.	Does not use "black" to describe Cain.
300–200 B.C.E.	1600s C.E.	1 Enoch "Animal Apocalypse" Ge'ez text:[29] እንበለ እንሥአ ለእምከ እድና ርኢኩ በራእይ በምስካብየ ወናሁ ወጽአ ላህም እምድር ወኮነ ዝኩ ላህም ፀዐዳ ወእምድኅረሁ ወጽአት ጣዕዋ አንስቲያዊት አሐ ቲ ወምስሌሃ ወጽአ ካልእ ጣዕዋ ወ ፩ እምኔሆሙ ኮነ ጸሊመ ወ ፩ ቀይሐ English translation: Before I took thy mother Ednâ, I saw in a vision on my couch, and behold, a bullock came out of the earth, and this bullock was white; and after him there came a female of the same species, and together with this one came other cattle, one of them was black and one red.	Describes Cain as a "black calf," and Abel as a "red calf."
35–120 C.E.	1100–1200 C.E.	Targum Onkelos Aramaic text:[30] וּתקֵיף לְקַיִן לַחדָא וְאִתכְבִישׁוּ אַפוֹהִי English translation: And it was very hard for Cain, and his face was subdued.	This Targum does not specify that Cain's face was black, merely that it was "subdued" (kbš).
100–400 C.E.	1504 C.E.	Tagum Neofiti Aramaic text:[31] ובאשׁ לקין לחדה ואישׁתני זיווהון דאפוי English translation: . . . and Cain was greatly displeased and his countenance changed.	This Targum does not indicate Cain's face was black, merely that it "changed" (šny).
200–1200 C.E.	1590 C.E.	Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Aramaic text:[32] ותקיף לקין לחדא ואיתכבישׁו איקונין דאפוהי English translation: This grieved Cain very much, and the expression of his face was downcast.	This Targum renders the verse similar to Targum Onkelos but with the addition of a Greek loanword: "expression [eikonon] of his face..."
200s C.E.	Between 400–600 C.E.	Christian Peshitta Syriac text:[33] ܘܐܬܒܐܣܠܩܐܝܢ܂ܬܒܘܐܬܟܡܪܐܦܘܗܝ ܘܗ English translation: And Cain was very displeased and his face became sad/became blackened (ܬܟܡܪ; tkmr)-	Describes Cain's experience as "to be sad or to become blackened."
400s C.E.	Between 800–1200 C.E.	Armenian Adam-book text:[34] կարտիւ եհար զԿայենի երեսն եւ սեւացոյց իբրեւ զգործելի, եւ այնպէս մնաց երեսն սեւ: English translation: He beat Cain’s face with hail, which blackened like coal, and thus he remained with a black face.	Describes Cain's face as "blackened."

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How do ancient Biblical accounts describe the mark or sign that the Lord set on Cain in the last part of Genesis 4:15?

None of the ancient translations and commentaries on Genesis 4:15 describe the "mark" or "sign" that God placed on Cain as black skin. (See table below.)

Ancient texts related to the mark or sign of Cain described in Genesis 4:15

Approximate date text was written or translated[35]	Approximate date of manuscript[36]	Ancient text and translation	Notes
800–600 B.C.E.	1008 C.E.	Masoretic Hebrew text:[37] וַיָּשֶׂם יְהוָה לְקַיִן אוֹת לְבִלְתִּי הַכּוֹת־אֹתוֹ כָּל־מֹצְאוֹ English translation:[38] And the LORD set a mark upon Cain, lest any finding him, should kill him.	The Hebrew term 'ot (אוֹת) may be understood as an outwardly visible mark or sign of divine protection.[39][40]
300s B.C.E.	200s C.E.	Greek Septuagint text:[41] καὶ ἔθετο κύριος ὁ θεὸς σημεῗον τῷ Καιν τοῦ μὴ ἀνελεῗν αὐτὸν πάντα τὸν εὑρίσκοντα αὐτόν English translation:[42] And the Lord God set a sign upon Cain that no one that found him might slay him.	The Greek term σημεῖον means a sign, mark, or token.
35–120 C.E.	1100–1200 C.E.	Targum Onkelos Aramaic text:[43] וְשַוִי יוי לְקַיִן אָתָא בְדִיל דְלָא לְמִקטַל יָתֵיה כֹל דְיִשכְחִינֵיה English translation:[44] And the Lord set unto Kain a sign, lest any one who found him should kill him.	The Aramaic text parallels the Masoretic Hebrew text.
100–400 C.E.	1504 C.E.	Targum Neofiti Aramaic text:[45] ושוי ייי לקין סימן דלא יקטול יתיה כל מן די יארע יתיה׃ English translation:[46] And the Lord placed a sign on Cain so that anyone who might meet him would not kill him.	The Aramaic text parallels the Masoretic Hebrew text.
200–1200 C.E.	1590 C.E.	Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Aramaic text:[47] ורשם ייי על אפי דקין אתא מן שמא רבא ויקירא בגין דלא למיקטול יתיה כל דישכחוניה באיסתכלותיה ביה English translation:[48] Then the Lord traced on Cain's face a letter of the great and glorious Name, so that anyone who would find him, upon seeing it on him, would not kill him.	The "Name" may refer to the name of God.[49]
200s C.E.	Between 400–600 C.E.	Christian Peshitta Syriac text:[50] ܬܐ ܒܩܐܝܢ ܕܠܐ ܢܩܛܠܝܘܗܝ ܟܠ ܡ̇ܢ ܕܡܫܟܚ ܠܗ. English translation:[51] And LORD JEHOVAH laid a sign on Qayn, so that no one who finds him would kill him.	Early Syrian Christians saw the "sign" of Cain as a means of divine protection.[52]
400 C.E.	1512 C.E.	Genesis Rabbah Hebrew text: [53] וַיֹאמֶר לוֹ ה' לָכֵן כָּל הֹרֵג קַיִן (בראשית ד, טו), רַבִּי יְהוּדָה וְרַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר נִתְכַּנְסוּ בְּהֵמָה חַיָּה וָעוֹף לִתְבֹּעַ דָּמוֹ שֶׁל הֶבֶל, אָמַר לָהֶן לָכֶן אֲנִי אוֹמֵר כָּל הוֹרֵג קַיִן יֵהָרֵג. אָמַר רַבִּי לֵוִי בָּא נָחָשׁ הַקַּדְמוֹנִי לִתְבֹּעַ דִּינוֹ שֶׁל הֶבֶל, אָמַר לוֹ הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא לָכֵן אֲנִי אוֹמֵר כָּל הוֹרֵג קַיִן יֵהָרֵג. רַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה אָמַר לֹא כְּדִינָן שֶׁל רוֹצְחָנִין דִּינוֹ שֶׁל קַיִן, קַיִן הָרַג וְלֹא הָיָה לוֹ מִמִּי לִלְמֹד, מִכָּאן וָאֵילָךְ כָּל הוֹרֵג קַיִן יֵהָרֵג. (בראשית ד, טו): וַיָּשֶׂם ה' לְקַיִן אוֹת, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה וְרַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה. רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אָמַר הִזְרִיחַ לוֹ גַּלְגַּל חַמָּה, אָמַר רַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה לְאוֹתוֹ רָשָׁע הָיָה מַזְרִיחַ לוֹ הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא גַּלְגַּל חַמָּה, אֶלָּא מְלַמֵּד שֶׁהִזְרִיחַ לוֹ הַצָּרַעַת, הֵיךְ מָה דְאַתְּ אָמַר (שמות ד, ח): וְהָיָה אִם לֹא יַאֲמִינוּ לָךְ וְלֹא יִשְׁמְעוּ לְקֹל הָאֹת וגו'. רַב אָמַר כֶּלֶב מָסַר לוֹ. אַבָּא יוֹסֵי בֶּן קֵסָרִי אָמַר קֶרֶן הִצְמִיחַ לוֹ. לָךְ English translation:[54] "And the Lord put a mark [on Cain, lest any who came upon him should kill him]" (Gen. 4:15): R. Judah said, "He made the orb of the sun shine for him."[55] Said to him R. Nehemiah, "Do you think that for that wicked man God would make the orb of the sun shine? Rather he made saraat [leprosy] break out on him. . ." Rab said, "He gave him a dog." [That is the sign of Cain.] Abba Yose said, "He made a horn grow on him."	In this interpretation, a dog may serve to signal the arrival of attackers and a horn might be used to ward them off.[56][57]
400s C.E.	Between 800–1200 C.E.	Armenian Adam-book text:[58] Մէկ պատոլՀասն այն է, որ երկու կոտօշ բոլսսւլ ի վերայ գլխոյն English translation: [59] The first punishment was this; that two horns sprouted upon his head.	The physical indication of Cain's "mark" was the growth of two horns upon his head.

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What does the Book of Abraham say about race?

It says that Ham, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians were descendants of the people of Canaan,[60] but does not specify that they were Black.

The Canaanites of the Book of Abraham may or may not be the people of Canaan described in the Book of Moses as having had a "blackness [come] upon all [them]."[61]

A black and white engraving called 'Noah Curses Canaan,' by Gustave Doré, in 1865, depicting Noah raising his hand to curse Canaan, who flees with his family. — An 1865 engraving of Noah cursing Canaan by Gustave Doré.

Did early Church leaders believe African persons are descended from Ham?

Yes, nineteenth and early twentieth-century apostles and prophets have stated that those of African descent were the descendants of Ham.[62]

What do ancient Biblical accounts say about the appearance of Ham?

Some ancient accounts seem to indicate that Ham was Black, while others do not. The Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible does not seem to indicate that Ham was Black.[63] Philo of Alexandria also does not seem to indicate that Ham was Black.[64] However, the Animal Apocalypse[65] and the Palestinian Talmud[66] do suggest that Ham was Black.

Ancient texts describing Ham.

Approximate date text was written or translated[67]	Approximate date of Manuscript[68]	Ancient text and translation	Notes
800–600 B.C.E.	100 C.E.	Dead Sea Scrolls Hebrew text:[69] וַיִּיקֶץ נֹחַ, מִיֵּינוֹ; וַיֵּדַע, אֵת אֲשֶׁר-עָשָׂה לוֹ בְּנוֹ הַקָּטָן וַיֹּאמֶר, אָרוּר כְּנָעַן: עֶבֶד עֲבָדִים, יִהְיֶה לְאֶחָיו וַיֹּאמֶר, בָּרוּךְ יְהוָה אֱלֹהֵי שֵׁם; וִיהִי כְנַעַן, עֶבֶד לָמוֹ English translation: And Noah awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done. And he said: Cursed be Canaan, he will be, for his brothers, a slave of slaves! But he did not curse Ham, but only his son, for God had blessed the sons of Noah.	Indicates that Ham is not cursed, but Canaan is cursed as being a "slave of slaves."
800–600 B.C.E.	1008 C.E.	Masoretic Hebrew text:[70] וַיַּרְא חָם אֲבִי כְנַעַן אֵת עֶרְוַת אָבִיו וַיַּגֵּד לִשְׁנֵֽי־אֶחָיו בַּחֽוּץ English translation: And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without.	The text for Genesis 9:22 does not specify anything about skin color.
300–100 century B.C.E.	300–100 B.C.E.	Genesis Apocryphon Aramaic text:[71] Col 12: ו[בני חם כוש ומצרי]ן ופוט וכנען ובנן נקבן שבע Col 17: כול נגאותא דיליד לוד ובין […]… ולמשך …[…]… […]… בני חם English translation: Col 12: [And the sons of Ham were Kush, Mitzrai]n, Put, and Canaan, as well as seven daughters. Col 17: inlet of the sea that lies next to the portion of the descendants of Ham	There are two mentions of Ham and neither of them describes his appearance.
300s B.C.E.	100–400 C.E.	Septuagint Greek text:[72] καὶ εἶδε Χὰμ ὁ πατὴρ Χαναὰν τὴν γύμνωσιν τοῦ πατρὸς English translation: And Ham the father of Canaan saw the nakedness of his father, and he went out and told his two brothers without.	The text uses Χ to spell Ham's name.[73] While some commentators[74] have tied Ham's name to the word for "black" in Hebrew or "servant" in Egyptian, the name Ham is of unknown origin.[75]
300–200 B.C.E.	1600s C.E.	Animal Apocalypse Ge'ez text:[76] ወውእቱ ላህም ዘተወልደ እምኔሁ ወለደ ሐራውያ ገዳም ጸሊመ ወበግዐ ፀዐዳ ወውእቱ ሐራውያ ገዳም ወለደ አኅርወ ብዙኃነ ወውእቱ በግዕ ወለደ ፲ ወ ፪ አባግዐ English translation: But that bull which was born from him begat a black wild boar and a white sheep; and this wild boar begat many boars, but that sheep produced twelve sheep.	Appears to identify "Ham" with "blackness," which may indicate either "evil" or actual skin color.[77]
100s C.E.	300–500 C.E.	Philo of Alexandria Greek text:[78] Τίνος δὴ ταῦθ᾿ εἵνεκα εἶπον ἢ τοῦ διδάξαι χάριν, ὅτι ὁ μὲν υἱὸς τοῦ Νῶε Χὰμ ἠρεμούσης κακίας ἐστὶν ὄνομα, ὁ δὲ υἱωνὸς ἤδη καὶ κινουμένης; ἑρμηνεύεται γὰρ θέρημ μὲν Χάμ, σάλος δὲ Χαναάν. θέρμη δὲ ἐν μὲν σώματι πυρετὸν ἐμφαίνει, κακίαν. English translation: These things were said for the purpose of showing that Ham the son of Noah is a name for evil in the quiet state and the grandson Canaan for the same when it flowed into active movement. In actuality, Ham is, by interpretation, “heat” and Canaan, “restlessness.”	Philo of Alexandria first associates the name Ham [ham] with the Hebrew word for "heat"[hwm] despite these two words probably not being connected.[79] He then connects "Canaan's curse" with "Ham's curse."
300–700 C.E.	300–700 C.E.	Babylonian Talmud Hebrew text:[80] חם לקה בעורו English translation: Ham (חם) was afflicted in his skin ( בעורו)	The curse of Ham impacted his skin, but it is unclear if this refers to skin color or something else.
400–500 C.E.	1289 C.E.	Palestinian Talmud Hebrew text:[81] חַם יָצָא מְפוּחָם English translation: Ham exited [from the ark] charcoal colored.	No reference to how or why Ham was charcoal-colored.

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Why have biblical commentators associated Ham with people of African descent?

The Hebrew word חָם (hām) means "black" or "hot."[82] Many commentators, ancient and modern, have interpreted this to be a reference to the color of Ham's skin.[83]

However, one of the earliest biblical commentators, Philo of Alexandria, connected the name Ham with heat in the context of "heat is a sign of fever in the body and of evil in the soul."[84]

If the oldest Biblical accounts don't seem to refer to literal skin color, does that discredit the idea that these "curses" were dark skin?

Possibly. Proximity in time to the recorded event is an important part of evaluating a historical document, but even the oldest available biblical texts are still centuries, even millennia, removed from the traditional dating of the events of Genesis.

If the oldest Biblical accounts don't refer to skin color, but Latter-day revealed scripture and teachings from Joseph Smith teach that the "seed of Cain" were Black, what does this mean?

It could mean a number of things for both Joseph's role as a revelator and the Pearl of Great Price as a source of revealed information. (See table below.)

Table of assumptions and corresponding explanations

Assumption	Possible Explanation or Conclusion
Revelations and inspired translations are perfectly received by their receipents.	The Pearl of Great Price restored the lost meaning of the Genesis story and the "seed of Cain" are Black.
The process of translation and revelation are imperfect and are influenced by the biases and culture of the receipent.	The Pearl of Great Price was filtered through Joseph's worldview and influenced by the common tradition that the "seed of Cain" are Black.
There is no such thing as revelation or inspired translation.	The Pearl of Great Price is a work of religious fiction and reflected the biases and traditions that Joseph held.

Was the Book of Moses or the Book of Abraham used to justify the temple/priesthood ban?

Yes and no. The documentary record does not contain direct evidence that the Pearl of Great Price was used to justify the ban when it was made public in 1852,[85] but up until 1978 when the ban was lifted, various Church leaders occasionally referenced the Book of Moses and/or Abraham when speaking of the priesthood ban.[86]

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Footnotes

BIOCain
According to the Bible and the Book of Moses in the Pearl of Great Price, Cain was a son of Adam and Eve who became notorious as the "first murderer" (Genesis 4:1–18; Moses 5). In both the biblical and Pearl of Great Price accounts, Cain murders his brother Abel and is "cursed" by God with a "mark" and to be a vagabond and fugitive in the earth (Genesis 4:9–15; Moses 5:34–41). The Pearl of Great Price account expands the Genesis account to include details such as Cain entering a covenant with Satan, making him the prototypical Son of Perdition and father of evil secret combinations (Moses 5:22–31).
BIOAdam
Adam was the mortal father of humankind, also known as The Ancient of Days or Michael. Adam partook of the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden and was cast out of the Garden and became mortal. He lived with his wife, Eve, and they had many children, including Cain, Abel, and Seth. Adam died at age 930.
BIOEnoch
Enoch was a prophet. He was ordained to the priesthood by Adam, spoke to the Lord face-to-face, preached repentance, and founded a righteous city whose inhabitants were translated.
BIOJoseph Smith, Jr.
Joseph Smith (1805–1844) organized The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in Sharon, Vermont, he began to experience visions of deity and angels at a young age. One vision featured the Angel Moroni, who revealed the location of gold plates with an account of ancient Americans. He translated this record and published it as The Book of Mormon. He continued to receive revelations throughout his life which serve as the foundation for the Church's doctrine today. He led the Latter-day Saints across the country from New York to Illinois. In 1844, he was martyred while awaiting trial in Carthage, Illinois.
[1]↩︎
Moses 7:8, 22 read:
For behold, the Lord shall curse the land with much heat, and the barrenness thereof shall go forth forever; and there was a blackness came upon all the children of Canaan, that they were despised among all people. . . . And Enoch also beheld the residue of the people which were the sons of Adam; and they were a mixture of all the seed of Adam save it was the seed of Cain, for the seed of Cain were black, and had not place among them.
- Moses 7:8, 22 in the current 2013 edition of the Book of Moses.
[2]↩︎
Abraham 1:21–27 teaches that Pharaoh, and descendant of Ham, was "cursed . . . as pertaining to the Priesthood."
- Modern 2013 edition of Abraham 1:21–27 in the Pearl of Great Price.
[3]↩︎
Some have argued that the interpretation given to Figure 6 in Facsimile 3 of the Book of Abraham reflects Joseph Smith's views on race and the origins if Black people.
- Ryan Stuart Bingham argues that Joseph's racial views influence his interpretations in Facsimile 3 of the Book of Abraham.
[4]↩︎
Joseph Smith's revision of Genesis noted this account of the people of Canaan:
Behold the people of Canaan, which are numerous, shall go forth in battle aray against the people of Shum, & shall slay them, that they shall be utterly destroyed. & the people of Canaan shall divide themselves in the land & the land shall be barren & unfruitful, & none other people shall dwell there but the people of Canaan. < > <4 > for, behold, the Lord shall curse the land with much heat & <the> barrenness thereof shall go forth forever. < > & there was a blackness come upon all the children of canaan so that they were despised among all people.
- Joseph translates Moses including the phrase that Canaanites had "blackness" come upon them.
[5]↩︎
Joseph Smith's revision of Genesis noted:
Enoch also beheld the residue of the people which were the sons of Adam and they were a mixture of ale [sic] the seed of Adam save it were the seed of Cain for the seed of Cain were black and had not place among them.
- The Book of Moses records that "the seed of Cain were black and had not place among them."
[6]↩︎
Joseph Smith's revision of Genesis said that Enoch did not preach to the people of Canaan.
And it came to pass that Enoch continued to call upon all the people, save it were the people of Canaan, to repent;
- Joseph translates Moses including the phrase that Canaanites had "blackness" come upon them.
- In Moses 7, Enoch was commanded not to teach people of Canaan.
[7]↩︎
In December 1830, Joseph wrote, "the Lord [did] reveal the following doings of olden times, from the prophecy of Enoch."
He indicated that the inspired version of the Bible, which included the Book of Moses, was the Lord "giving some more extended information upon the Scriptures, a translation of which had already commenced."
- Joseph wrote in his journal that the Lord revealed the contents of the Book of Moses.
[8]↩︎
Ryan Stuart Bingham and Dan Vogel have both argued the "blackness" spoken of in the Book of Moses was intended to mean black skin.
- Ryan Stuart Bingham argues in JMH that the "blackness" of Cain and Canaanites in Moses and Abraham referred to race and skin color.
- Dan Vogel argues that the Pearl of Great Price describes the origins of Black people.
[9]↩︎
In an article on color symbolism in ancient Egypt in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Gay Robins noted that:
White was associated with purity, so it was the color of the clothes worn by ritual specialists. The notion of purity may have underlain the use of white calcite for temple floor" and that "black was not desirable for ordinary humans, because it marked out figures as foreign, as enemies of Egypt, and ultimately as representatives of chaos.
- Gay Robins gives an overview of color symbolism in ancient Egypt and the colorization of foreigners.
[10]↩︎
"Black" was used interchangeably with other words that refer to persons of African ancestry. The 1828 Webster's Dictionary defines black as "a negro; a person whose skin is black."
[11]↩︎
Stephen Smoot has argued the "blackness" was referring to a state of spiritual wickedness.
- Stephen Smoot addresses Dan Vogel's argument about race in the Pearl of Great Price.
[12]↩︎
Hugh Nibley wrote that the "blackness" of the children of Cain may have been the black soot of metalworking and forging.
- Nibley links the "blackness" of Cain with the soot and gime of metalworking.
[13]↩︎
For example, Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, W. W. Phelps, and George Q. Cannon all taught that Black people were descended from the seed of Cain.
[14]↩︎
Joseph wrote in his journal in 1842 about an evening where he debated with John C. Bennett and others. In the journal entry, he described Black people as "the Sons of Cain."
- Willard Richards records in Joseph's journal that Joseph described Black people as "sons of Cain."
[15]↩︎
Brigham Young and Lorenzo Snow discussed "the African race" in a council meeting and Brigham explained that the "curse remains on them" for killing Abel.
- Brigham says that Africans are cursed descendants of Cain.
[16]↩︎
For example, in 1785 Paul Erdmann Iserts, commenting on theories of the origin of Black people, wrote:
. . . Cain, the murderer of his brother, whose family were destined to have the black colour as a punishment.
And in 1838, Theodore D. Weld wrote in The Bible Against Slavery
How often has it been bruited that the color of the negro is the Cain-mark, propagated downward.
- Paul Erdmann Iserts comments on alleged "Cain" origins for Africans.
- Weld criticizes use of Cain myth for African origins.
[17]↩︎
The earliest fragment of Genesis included Cain's "countenance falling."
- Leon Levy Digital Library produces photograph of the 4Q2 Genesis fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls manuscript.
[18]↩︎
The Leningard Codex described Cain's face falling.
- LCE scribe writes C as "casting down" his face.
[19]↩︎
The Septuagint reference to Cain reads, "But Cain and his sacrifices he regarded not. And Cain was exceedingly sorrowful, and his countenance fell."
- Codex Vaticanus reference to Cain.
[20]↩︎
Targums Onqelos and Pseudo-Jonathan read that Cain's face was "subdued" or "downcast" (Aramaic: kbš), while Targum Neofiti reads that Cain's "countenance changed" (Aramaic: ʾytštny zywwhwn dʾpw). None of the Targums specify that Cain's face was black.
[21]↩︎
The Syriac Peshitta can be interpreted to describe Cain as either "black" or "sad" depending on translation.
- Uncertain Syriac text indicating "black" or "sad."
[22]↩︎
The Armenian Adam Book is an ancient Christian account that describes Cain as "black."
- AAAL offers an account of Cain where identified as "black."
[23]↩︎
The Animal Apocalypse describes Cain as a "dark calf."
- James H. Charlesworth translates text regarding Cain as a "dark calf."
[24]↩︎
This date represents the commonly accepted date of when the text would have been first written down.
[25]↩︎
This is the date or the date range for the earliest complete manuscripts of the text itself.
[26]↩︎
The Leningrad Codex, scribed ca. 1008 C.E., is the oldest full codex available of the Old Testament. This manuscript is considered authoritative for the Masoretic text.
- LCE scribe writes C as "casting down" his face.
[27]↩︎
The 4Q2 Genesis fragments are Hebrew fragments of Genesis from the Roman period (c. 30-68 AD). They were found at Qumran and are early witnesses of Genesis.
- Leon Levy Digital Library produces photograph of the 4Q2 Genesis fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls manuscript.
[28]↩︎
The Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, was produced circa second-century B.C.E. The Codex Vaticanus is the earliest full-text Septuagint manuscript available. Produced in the 8th century C.E., the codex itself can be dated to the 5th-century.
- Codex Vaticanus reference to Cain.
[29]↩︎
Written in the second century B.C.E., The "Animal Apocalypse" presents a parable account of the Creation and Flood using animal figures. The account itself is located in 1 Enoch and is written in a Semitic language known as Ge'ez.
- James H. Charlesworth translates text regarding Cain as a "dark calf."
[30]↩︎
Targum Onkelos is widely regarded as the "official" or authoritative Babylonian (eastern) Targum of the Torah for use in the synagogue.
- Alexander Sperber reproduces Aramaic text of Targum Onkelos for Genesis 4:5.
[31]↩︎
This Targum is known from a single manuscript recovered in Rome and dating to the early sixteenth century, although the translation itself was made at least a millennium earlier.
- Targum Neofiti Genesis 4:5 reproduced by Alejandro Díez Macho.
[32]↩︎
This Targum, often incorrectly attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, is also known as the Jerusalem Targum and includes both translations of the Hebrew text of the Bible as well as commentary or expansions on the biblical text.
- E. G. Clarke reproduces text of Genesis 4:5 of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan.
[33]↩︎
The Syriac Peshitta is the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Syriac ca. the second century.
- Uncertain Syriac text indicating "black" or "sad."
[34]↩︎
The medieval Armenian Adam Books consist of Armenian Christian apocryphal traditions. These contain legends about Adam, Eve, and related people.
- AAAL offers an account of Cain where identified as "black."
[35]↩︎
This date represents the commonly accepted date of when the text would have been first written down.
[36]↩︎
This is the date or the date range for the earliest complete manuscripts of the text itself.
[37]↩︎
The Leningrad Codex, scribed ca. 1008 C.E., is the oldest full codex available of the Old Testament. This manuscript is considered authoritative for the Masoretic text.
- Leningrad Codex editor scribes Masoretic text of Genesis 4:15 describing the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[38]↩︎
The King James Bible (KJB) or Authorized Version (AV), a well-known English translation currently used at the official Bible of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was commissioned by King James VI and I in 1604 and published in 1611.
- King James Bible publishers offer English translation of Genesis 4:15 about the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[39]↩︎
Jewish tefillin (phylacteries) are placed on the forehead and the arm (see Exodus 13:9, 16; Deuteronomy 6:8, 11:18). Hence an ancient Jewish commentary, Pirke of Rabbi Eliezer, sees the sign as a letter of the Torah on Cain's arm.
Hebrew Bible scholar James L. Kugel observes that a mark on the forehead (or hand/arm) is used as a protective sign of holiness in the Bible.
For example, Psalms 16:6–9 reads, "For God's mark is on the righteous for salvation . . . [but] those who act lawlessly shall not escape the Lord's judgment. They shall be overtaken by those experienced in war, for on their forehead is the mark of destruction."
- Editors of Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer publish a French translation of an ancient Jewish commentary relating to Genesis 4:15 and the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
- Scholar James L. Kugel describes various ancient ideas about the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[40]↩︎
Latter-day Saint scholars Richard D. Draper, S. Kent Brown, and Michael D. Rhodes state: "The mark is not the same as the curse, which carried multiple penalties."
The most serious penalty is being "shut out from the presence of the Lord" (Moses 5:41).
- Latter-day Saint scholars Richard D. Draper et al. observe that Cain's "mark is not the same as the curse, which carried multiple penalties."
[41]↩︎
The Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, was produced circa the second century B.C.E.. The Codex Vaticanus is the earliest, full-text Septuagint manuscript available. Produced in the eighth century C.E., the codex itself can be dated to the 5th-century.
- Alfred Ralphs offers Greek Septuagint version of Genesis 4:15 that mentions the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[42]↩︎
Cécile Dogniez and Marguerite Harl offer a modern translation and commentary on the Greek Septuagint version of Genesis.
- Bible scholars Dogniez and Harl offer a translation into French of the Greek Septuagint text of Genesis 4:15 that speaks of the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[43]↩︎
Targum Onkelos is widely regarded as the "official" or authoritative Babylonian (eastern) Targum of the Torah for use in the synagogue.
- Stephen A. Kaufman's edition of Targum Onkelos offers an Aramaic paraphrase of Genesis 4:15 that discusses Cain's "mark" or "sign."
[44]↩︎
J. W. Etheridge published his English translation of the Targum Onkelos in 1862.
- J. W. Etheridge offers an English translation of the Targum Onkelos that paraphrases Genesis 4:15 about the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[45]↩︎
Targum Neofiti is known from a single manuscript recovered in Rome and dating to the early sixteenth century, although the translation itself is believed to have been made at least a millennium earlier.
- Stephen A. Kaufman offers a transcription of the Aramaic text of Targum Neofiti that includes a paraphrase of Genesis 4:15.
[46]↩︎
Martin McNamara offers a scholarly English translation of Targum Neofiti's paraphrase of Genesis 4:15.
- Martin McNamara offers an English translation of Targum Neofiti that paraphrases Genesis 4:15.
[47]↩︎
This Targum, often incorrectly attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, is also known as the Jerusalem Targum and includes both translations of the Hebrew text of the Bible as well as commentary or expansions on the biblical text.
- Stephen A. Kaufman offers a transcription of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for Genesis 4:15 that discusses Cain's "mark" or "sign."
[48]↩︎
Mark Maher offers a scholarly English translation of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan's paraphase of Genesis 4:15.
- Michael Maher offers an English translation of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan that includes a paraphrase of Genesis 4:15 discussing the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[49]↩︎
The medieval Jewish scholar Rashi concluded that because the "sign/mark" is singular, it was a single letter of God's name, probably its first letter (yod). This idea may have come from a later meaning of "sign" as a letter of the alphabet. Compare Zohar 1:36b, where it is said that the sign was one of the 22 letters of the Torah.
- Rabbi Y. Herczeg translates Rashi commentary into English, with its interpretation of Cain's "mark" or "sign" as mentioned in Genesis 4:15.
- Daniel C. Matt offers an English translation of the Zohar that interprets the "mark" or "sign" of Cain mentioned in Genesis 4:15.
[50]↩︎
The Syriac Peshitta is the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Syriac ca. the second century.
- Samuel Lee offers a transcription of the Syriac Peshitta Pentateuch, including a translation of Genesis 4:15, describing the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[51]↩︎
Glenn David Bauscher offers an English translation of the Syriac Peshitta translation of Genesis 4:15.
- Glenn David Bauscher offers an English translation of the Syriac Peshitta translation of Genesis 4:15, which mentions the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[52]↩︎
Abraham Levene translated a commentary written by early Syrian Christians in about 900 C.E. that interprets Genesis 4:15:
It says "a sign," i.e., He appointed it, that he [Cain] should not be killed, just as "Thou hast given a sign to them that fear Thee," i.e., "Thou hast guarded us as with a sign."
- Abraham Levene translates a commentary on Genesis 4:15 from early Syrian Christians mentioning the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[53]↩︎
Sefaria publishes an online Hebrew text of Bereishit Rabbah 22:12 that discusses the "sign" of Cain mentioned in Genesis 4:15.
- Sefaria publishes an online Hebrew text of Bereishit Rabbah 22:12.
[54]↩︎
Jewish scholar Jacob Neusner offers a structured English translation of Genesis Rabbah 22:12, a running commentary by ancient rabbis on Genesis 4:15.
- Jacob Neusner provides an English translation of Genesis Rabbah 22:12 on Genesis 4:15, which mentions the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[55]↩︎
In the early Christian Nag Hammadi text, "The Secret Book of John," it says of Cain that "generations of people call [him] the sun."
- Marvin Meyer provides an English translation of an early Christian text that describes Cain as "the sun."
[56]↩︎
James L. Kugel summarizes ancient views about the function of a dog or a horn as "signs" of Cain.
- Scholar James L. Kugel describes various ancient ideas about the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[57]↩︎
The sign of a "horn" in the forehead made Cain look like a beast. According to James L. Kugel, that is why some accounts of a later combat by Lamech and Tubal-Cain interpret them as having mistakenly killing Cain, thinking he was an animal (Genesis 4:23–26).
- James L. Kugel summarizes ancient Jewish traditions surmising that Cain was mistakenly killed by his descendant, Lamech.
[58]↩︎
The medieval Armenian Adam Books consist of Armenian Christian apocryphal traditions. These contain legends about Adam, Eve, and related people.
- Lipscomb provides a transcription of ancient Armenian Christian traditions relating to Genesis 4:15 and the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[59]↩︎
W. Lowndes Lipscomb English translation of ancient Armenian Adam traditions describes seven punishments of Cain, one of which is a visible sign of two horns.
- Lipscomb offers and English translation of ancient Armenian Christian Adam traditions in his Ph.D. Dissertation that comments on Genesis 4:15 mention of the "mark" or "sign" of Cain.
[60]↩︎
The Book of Abraham directly says that Ham, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians were descendants of Canaan in the Book of Abraham manuscript.
- Book of Abraham states Pharaoh was restricted from the priesthood because of lineage.
[61]↩︎
In Chapter 7 of Moses, it says a "blackness came upon all the children of Canaan" and that Enoch was not to preach to them.
However, it is not clear if these pre-Flood "children of Canaan" are the same as the "Canaanites" described in the Book of Abraham.
- The Book of Moses records that "the seed of Cain were black and had not place among them."
[62]↩︎
W. W. Phelps in 1835 described how Ham broke the law of God and that "some of his black seed was preserved through the flood."
In a letter to Franklin D. Richards that Orson Hyde penned in 1845, Hyde referenced the curse of Ham and stated that Canaan, the son of Ham, received the curse of Ham. Hyde said that the African race came from this cursed lineage.
During a meeting on April 25, 1847, Parley P. Pratt said that a Black man had the blood of Ham in him and referred to the lineage of Ham as cursed.
In 1851, Wilford Woodruff recorded in his journal that Brigham referenced the curse of Ham with respect to slavery.
[63]↩︎
The description of Ham in Genesis 9 gives no indication of his skin color.
- LCE use chet for "Ham" (Gen. 9:22-24.)
[64]↩︎
Philo of Alexandria connected the word Ham to "heat."
- PA interprets Ham to mean "heat," with no claimed connection to Africa or color.
[65]↩︎
The Animal Apocalypse used animals in a parable to describe the creation account, saying that Ham was a "black" calf.
- James H. Charlesworth translates text regarding Cain as a "dark calf."
[66]↩︎
The Palestinian Talmud described Ham as "charcoal colored."
- RHBA identifies H as "charcoal colored."
[67]↩︎
This date represents the commonly accepted date of when the text would have been first written down.
[68]↩︎
This is the date or the date range for the earliest complete manuscripts of the text itself.
[69]↩︎
The Dead Sea Scrolls contain Hebrew religious texts. Manuscripts date from 3rd century B.C.E. to 1st century C.E..
- DSS text (1st century B.C.E.) relays Ham account, uses chet.
[70]↩︎
The Leningrad Codex, scribed ca. 1008 C.E., is the oldest full codex available of the Old Testament. This manuscript is considered authoritative for the Masoretic text.
- LCE use chet for "Ham" (Gen. 9:22-24.)
[71]↩︎
The Genesis Apocryphon, dated to between the third century to first century B.C.E., is one of the nonbiblical texts found with the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- John C. Reeves translates 1Q Genesis Apocryphon.
[72]↩︎
The Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, was produced ca. the second century B.C.E.. The Codex Vaticanus is the earliest full-text Septuagint manuscript available. Produced in the eighth century C.E., the codex itself can be dated to the fifth century.
- Septuagint records Ham account, using chi (χ) rather than the Greek equivalent of chet [ח].
[73]↩︎
The Greek text reads: καὶ εἶδε Χὰμ ὁ πατὴρ Χαναὰν τὴν γύμνωσιν τοῦ πατρὸς αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐξελθὼν ἀνήγγειλε τοῖς δυσὶν ἀδελφοῖς αὐτοῦ ἔξω. καὶ λαβόντες Σὴμ καὶ ᾿Ιάφεθ τὸ ἱμάτιον ἐπέθεντο ἐπὶ τὰ δύο νῶτα αὐτῶν καὶ ἐπορεύθησαν ὀπισθοφανῶς καὶ συνεκάλυψαν τὴν γύμνωσιν τοῦ πατρὸς αὐτῶν, καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτῶν ὀπισθοφανῶς, καὶ τὴν γύμνωσιν τοῦ πατρὸς αὐτῶν οὐκ εἶδον.
The English text reads: And Ham the father of Canaan saw the nakedness of his father, and he went out and told his two brothers without. And Sem and Japheth having taken a garment, put it on both their backs and went backwards, and covered the nakedness of their father; and their face was backward, and they saw not the nakedness of their father.
- Septuagint records Ham account, using chi (χ) rather than the Greek equivalent of chet [ח].
[74]↩︎
Goldenberg discussed how most commentators, including some abolitionists, would link Ham's name to blackness.
He pointed to individuals such as Edward Blyden, Josiah Pirest, and James A. Sloan who held this view. He also cited Thomas Peterson who shows how common this view was.
- David Goldenberg explains that the persistence that Ham was black originated from saying his name meant black.
[75]↩︎
Goldenberg explained how commentators may have mixed up various consonants in order to draw these parallels to Hebrew and Egyptian. The Septuagint translation of the word "Ham" makes it clear that "Ham" is not connected to these words.
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible was updated in 1963 to remove the previous entry that stated that Ham meant "Egypt" or was derived from the word kem meaning "black."
Biblical scholar William Albright indicated that there is no certain etymology of Ham's name and all explanations are "wanting."
[76]↩︎
Written in the second century B.C.E., the "Animal Apocalypse" presents a parable account of the Creation and Flood using animal figures. The account itself is located in 1 Enoch and is written in a Semitic language known as Ge'ez.
- James H. Charlesworth translates text regarding Cain as a "dark calf."
[77]↩︎
This reading of the text has been proposed by some scholars who try to make sense of the color symbolism of the different animals.
- Ephraim Isaac's translation of the "Animal Apocalypse" offers color-driven animal depiction of Noah account.
- Goldenberg reviews the interpretation of the color symbolism of the Animal Apocalypse.
[78]↩︎
Philo of Alexandria wrote about Ham in the first century C.E.. The earliest manuscript dates to the third to fourth century C.E..
- PA interprets Ham to mean "heat," with no claimed connection to Africa or color.
[79]↩︎
Goldenberg explained how the Hebrew word for heat does not have an etymological relationship to the word for Ham, despite Philo's connecting the two words.
William Albright also indicated that the etymology of Ham's name is unknown.
- David Goldenberg explains how Ham was misread.
- Albright notes that origins of Ham's name are unknown.
[80]↩︎
The Babylonian Talmud contained Hebrew religious texts including a reference to Ham. This reference was written anywhere between the third century C.E. to the sixth century C.E. with the manuscript date being the same as the date of the text.
- Babylonian Talmud states that Ham's "skin turned black."
[81]↩︎
The Palestinian Talmund collected Hebrew religious texts including a reference to Ham. The text was likely written between the fifth and fourth centuries C.E. and the manuscript dates to 1289 C.E..
- RHBA identifies H as "charcoal colored."
[82]↩︎
David Goldenberg explained that the word (hām) means "black," which led to commentators connecting it to the biblical figure Ham.
Philo of Alexandria wrote an interpretation of the Ham and Cain stories based on the name Ham meaning "heat."
- David Goldenberg explains that the persistence that Ham was black originated from saying his name meant black.
- PA interprets Ham to mean "heat," with no claimed connection to Africa or color.
[83]↩︎
Fourth-century commentator Ephrem of Syria suggested that the faces of Ham and Canaan "became black":
When Noah awoke and was told what Canaan did . . . Noah said, ‘Cursed be Canaan and may God make his face black and immediately the face of Canaan changed; so did the face of his father Ham, and their white faces became black and dark
Seventh-century Islamic commentator Ka'b al-Ahbār described the Canaan curse:
When Noah died, Ham lay with his wife; and God opened his gaul-vesicle and that of his wife also so that they mingled and she conceived a black boy and girl. Ham despised them and said to his wife, “They are not mine!” They are yours!” said his wife, “for the curse of your father is upon us.” After that he did not approach her until the children had grown, when he again lay with her, and she bore two more black children, male and female. Ham knew that they were his, therefore he left his wife and fled.
Eighth-century Islamic commentator Wahb ibn Munabbih offered this account:
Wahb ibn Munabbih said: Ham the son of Noah was a white man, with a handsome face and a fine figure, and Almighty God changed his color and the color of his descendants in response to his father’s curse. He went away, followed by his sons, and they settled by the shore, where God increased and multiplied them. They are the blacks [sūdān].
Renowned Bible commentator Adam Clarke, citing Eusebius, said that Noah,
was commanded of God to make a will, and bequeath the whole of the earth to his three sons. . . to Shem, all the east: to Ham, all Africa: to Japheth, the continent of Europe, with its isles, and the northern parts of Asia.
Joseph Fielding Smith observed:
It was well understood by the early elders of the Church that the mark which was placed on Cain and which his posterity inherited was the black skin. The Book of Moses informs us that Cain and his descendants were black. Enoch taught the Gospel among all the people everywhere, except the people of Canaan.
[84]↩︎
Philo of Alexandria connected Ham to heat, but did not connect him to Africa:
Ham the son of Noah is a name for evil in the quiescent state and the grandson Canaan for the same when it passes into active movement. For Ham is by interpretation “heat,” and Canaan “tossing.” Now heat is a sign of fever in the body and of evil in the soul.
- PA interprets Ham to mean "heat," with no claimed connection to Africa or color.
[85]↩︎
One of the earliest references to the priesthood ban was from Parley P. Pratt in 1847. He used language similar to what is found in the Book of Abraham:
This Black man who had got the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the Priesthood.
Compare with the original Book of Abraham manuscript:
As pertainig to the Priesthood, Now Pharaoh being of that lineage, by which he could not have the right of Priessthood.
However, the Book of Moses and the Book of Abraham were never explicitly referenced by Brigham Young at the time when the priesthood and temple restriction was made public in 1852.
[86]↩︎
For example, in a November 3, 1947 letter to John E. Denhalter, Jr., David O. McKay wrote that
I know of no scriptural basis for denying the Priesthood to Negroes other than one verse in the Book of Abraham (1:26); however, I believe, as you suggest, that the real reason dates back to our Pre-extistent life.
In his 1958 (1st) edition of Mormon Doctrine, Bruce R. McConkie, under the entry "Ham" noted that
Through Ham (a name meaning black) "the blood of the Canaanites was preserved" through the flood, he having married Egyptus, a descendant of Cain. (Abra. 1:20-27.) Ham was cursed, apparently for marrying into the forbidden lineage. "Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren" (Gen. 9:25), said Noah of Ham's descendants. These descendants cannot hold the priesthood.
In his book The Way to Perfection, Joseph Fielding Smith appealed to Moses 7 to explain why missionary work would not be focused among the "Canaanites":
The Book of Moses informs us that Cain and his descendants were black. Enoch taught the Gospel among all the people everywhere, except the people of Canaan.
However, shortly before the 1978 lifting of the priesthood and temple restrictions, it was reported by Edward Kimball, President Kimball's son, that:
Elder McConkie wrote a long memorandum concluding that there was no scriptural barrier to a change in policy that would give priesthood to black men.
[87]↩︎
The Church published an essay on "Race and the Priesthood" in 2013 where they wrote,
"Today, the Church disavows the theories advanced in the past that black skin is a sign of divine disfavor or curse, or that it reflects actions in a premortal life; that mixed-race marriages are a sin; or that blacks or people of any other race or ethnicity are inferior in any way to anyone else."
- In the Gospel Topics Essay, the Church denounces past theories and racism.