Book of Mormon Geography

The question of Book of Mormon geography has fascinated people for nearly two centuries. From the North American heartland to the dense jungles of Mesoamerica, the debate about the location of Book of Mormon events touches on archaeology, history, and theology. This Q&A article does not advocate for a specific geographic model but instead offers insights into common questions and the principles that guide Latter-day Saints in approaching this complex topic.

Does the Church have an official position on Book of Mormon geography?

No. The Church "does not take a position on the specific geographic locations of Book of Mormon events in the ancient Americas" and urges members to not "imply either prophetic or Church support" for various theories related to Book of Mormon geography.[1][2]

Why is the Church neutral on Book of Mormon geography?

The Church states that ”the Lord has not spoken" on the matter of Book of Mormon geography and they probably want to avoid speculation.[3]

How does the Book of Mormon describe its geography?

The traditional interpretation of the Book of Mormon's internal geography—descriptions within the text without reference to known locations—depicts a region shaped like an “hourglass,” featuring a land northward, a narrow neck of land in the center, and a land southward. Cities, rivers, and other features are positioned in relation to one another on this internal map.[4][5]

"Possible Book of Mormon Sites in Relation to Each Other"

A stylized map of the Book of Mormon lands showing the “Land Northward” and “Land Southward” separated by a narrow neck of land. The map labels major rivers, wildernesses, hills, and seas (Sea West and Sea East). Cities and lands are marked with red dots, including Zarahemla, Bountiful, Moroni, Nephi, Cumeni, Manti, Gideon, and others. Jaredite cities such as Moron and Shem are shown in the Land Northward. A key indicates symbols for major city/land, city/land, Jaredite city/land, wilderness, and Nephite cities in Mormon chapters 2–5. — Map published by the Church (*Book of Mormon Student Manual* [2018]) of the "internal geography" of the Book of Mormon with the following description: "Possible relationships of sites in the Book of Mormon, based on internal evidence. No effort should be made to identify points on this map with any existing geographical location. The map spans Jaredite and Nephite/Lamanite periods during which settlements changed over time."[6]

What are the main theories about Book of Mormon geography?

Some of the more popular theories about Book of Mormon geography historically and today include:[7]

Hemispheric Model: This model states that Book of Mormon events spanned both North and South America, with the land northward corresponding to North America, the land southward to South America, and the narrow neck of land identified as the Isthmus of Panama.[8]

Mesoamerican Model: This model places events in southern Mexico and Guatemala, emphasizing similarities in geography, culture, and archaeology that align with descriptions in the Book of Mormon.[9]

Heartland Model: This model centers Book of Mormon geography in the eastern United States, particularly the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys, and often relies on statements by Joseph Smith to support its claims.[10]

South American Model: This model proposes that Book of Mormon events occurred in areas such as Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, citing archaeological and cultural evidence from these regions.[11]

Each theory has its strengths and weaknesses. See the chart below.

Book of Mormon Geography Theories

Theory	Features	Strengths	Weaknesses
Hemispheric Model	Places events across both North and South America with the Isthmus of Panama as the "narrow neck of land."	Simplicity and coherence in its interpretation.[12] Aligns with early Church leaders such as Orson Pratt.[13]	Inconsistent with the Book of Mormon's travel distances.[14] Lack of archaeological support for hemispheric civilizations.[15]
Mesoamerican Model	Places events in southern Mexico and Central America, with a "narrow neck of land" near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.	Aligns with geographical and cultural descriptions in the text.[16] Converges with archaeological evidence of advanced civilizations in Central America.[17]	At odds with traditional location of Hill Cumorah in New York.[18] Requires shift of cardinal directions to fit in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.[19] Requires a broad interpretation of Joseph Smith's statements related to the Native Americans.[20]
Heartland Model	Centers Book of Mormon events in the eastern United States, particularly the Mississippi River Valley.	Highlights evidence of ancient civilizations and artifacts in the region.[21] Aligns with statements made by Joseph Smith.[22]	Often cites archaeological forgeries.[23] Questionable claims about Native American genetics.[24] Ignores or downplays statements from Joseph Smith placing Book of Mormon geography in Central America.[25]
South America Model	Places events primarily in South America along the coast of the Pacific Ocean.	Alignment with early Church leaders’ statements about Lehi landing in Chile.[26] Alignment with certain archaeological findings (e.g., metallurgy).[27]	At odds with traditional location of Hill Cumorah in New York.[28] Lack of a viable candidate for the River Sidon and inconsistencies in population sizes required to align with the Book of Mormon.[29] Inconsistent with the Book of Mormon's travel distances.[30]

Expand Table

Doesn't the cataclysmic destruction described in 3 Nephi make it impossible to locate Book of Mormon geography today?

Possibly. Dramatic earthquakes, tempests, and widespread devastation described in 3 Nephi are said to have altered the landscape significantly.[31] However, the text within the Book of Mormon seems to indicate that key geographic features endured after the cataclysms in 3 Nephi.[32][33]

Why do theories about Book of Mormon geography vary so widely?

Possibly because different theories prioritize sources of evidence differently from each other.[34] For example, Heartland proponents tend to prioritize the statements of Joseph Smith,[35] while Mesoamerican proponents tend to prioritize internal geographic evidences in the Book of Mormon text.[36]

Read More Difficult Questions

204 Primary Sources

Footnotes

BIOJoseph Smith, Jr.
Joseph Smith (1805–1844) organized The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in Sharon, Vermont, he began to experience visions of deity and angels at a young age. One vision featured the Angel Moroni, who revealed the location of gold plates with an account of ancient Americans. He translated this record and published it as The Book of Mormon. He continued to receive revelations throughout his life which serve as the foundation for the Church's doctrine today. He led the Latter-day Saints across the country from New York to Illinois. In 1844, he was martyred while awaiting trial in Carthage, Illinois.
BIOOrson Pratt
Orson Pratt (1811–1881) was born in Hartford, New York, and was an apostle for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He was called on many missions. He was excommunicated from the Church in August 1842, after allegations of Joseph Smith's impropriety. Pratt was rebaptized in January 1843 and served as a leading pamphleteer for the Church and defender of the faith.
BIOGeorge Q. Cannon
George Q. Cannon (1827–1901) was born in Liverpool, England, to George Cannon and Ann Quayle. His family was baptized into the Church in 1840. In 1842, he and his family immigrated to Nauvoo and later moved west with the Saints in 1847. In 1849, he served as a mining missionary to California. During this time, he was asked to travel to the Kingdom of Hawaii, where he served for four years. During this time, with the assistance of Jonatana Napela, Cannon translated the Book of Mormon into Hawaiian. After the Utah War, he served as the president of the Eastern States Mission. He was ordained as an apostle in August 1860 and served as a counselor in the First Presidency (under four presidents) from 1873-1887 and 1889-1901.
BIOJoseph F. Smith
Joseph F. Smith (1838–1918) was born in Far West, Missouri to Hyrum and Mary Fielding Smith. At age 15, he was called to serve his first mission to the Sandwich Islands under the direction of apostle Parley P. Pratt. During the 1858-59 session of the Utah territorial legislature, he served as the sergeant-at-arms. He served another mission for the Church in Great Britain from 1860 to 1863.
Smith was ordained an apostle by Brigham Young in July 1866. He served as a counselor in the First Presidency under John Taylor, Wilford Woodruff, and Lorenzo Snow. He became the president of the Church in 1901. Smith issued the Second Manifesto, declaring that any church officer who performed a plural marriage would be excommunicated, alongside the couple themselves. He also received what is now canonized as section 138 of the Doctrine and Covenants, a vision of the spirit world in 1918.
BIOB. H. Roberts
Brigham Henry Roberts (1857-1933) was born in Warrington, Lancashire, England, to Benjamin Roberts and Ann Everington. Roberts emigrated from England in 1866 and crossed the plains to Salt Lake City. He was baptized in 1867 and settled in Bountiful. Roberts served a mission to Iowa and Nebraska, then was transferred to Tennessee in 1880. He served as president of the Eastern States Mission from 1922 to 1927 and as one of the seven Presidents of the Seventy from 1888 until his death. Roberts was an early and prolific writer on Mormonism, best known for A Comprehensive History of the Church and Studies of the Book of Mormon.
BIOJames E. Talmage
James E. Talmage (1862-1933) served as an apostle for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in England, Talmage, he received a primary education through Oxford University's Dioceasan Program. As a teenager, Talmage joined the Latter-day Saint faith and migrated from the United Kingdom to Utah Territory. He studied geology at Lehigh University and Johns Hopkins University. Talmage served as president of the University of Utah, a museum curator, and mining consultant. In 1911, he became an apostle in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Talmage wrote Jesus the Christ, a biography of Jesus meant for general church readership. He contributed to Church discussions on evolution, arguing for a middle-way approach that protected the Church from taking an official position. Talmage died at the age of 70.
BIOAnthony W. Ivins
Anthony Woodward Ivins (1852–1934) was born in Toms River, New Jersey. His family immigrated to Utah in 1853. In 1861, his family was called to go with the first settlers to St. George, Utah. Ivins was called on multiple missions, including to Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico. He was a constable, rancher, prosecuting attorney, mayor, and city council member in St. George. Ivans was a mission president in Mexico City and also became the first stake president of the Juarez Stake, the first Latter-day Saint stake in Mexico. Ivins was called and ordained as an apostle of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and was a member of the First Presidency from 1921 until his death.
BIOJohn A. Widtsoe
John Andreas Widtsoe (January 31, 1872–November 29, 1952) was an early Latter-day Saint leader. He was born on Frøya, a Norwegian island. He lost his father when he was six. His family was introduced to the Church a few years later. Widtsoe moved to Utah with his family in 1883 and was baptized in 1884. Widtsoe graduated from Harvard with a degree in chemistry in 1894 and married Leah Eudora Dunford in 1898. Widtsoe was called on a mission to get his Ph.D. at the University of Göttingen, Germany. He graduated in 1899. Widtsoe was president of Utah State Agricultural College from 1907–1916. He was then president of the University of Utah until 1921. Widtsoe was called as an apostle in 1921 and served until his death in 1952.
BIOMark E. Petersen
Mark E. Petersen (1900-1984) served as an apostle for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in Salt Lake City, Petersen served a mission to Nova Scotia and attended the University of Utah, where he studied journalism. He worked as a reporter for the Deseret News and soon became the Deseret News general manager. In 1944, he was appointed to the apostleship. He became the author of multiple short books on scriptural figures such as Moses and Joshua and moral issues such as alcohol consumption and sexual relationships. Petersen also was an ardent opponent of the Civil Rights Movement, warning that it would lead to racial intermarriage. Petersen died from cancer in 1984.
BIOHarold B. Lee
Harold Bingham Lee (March 28, 1899 – December 26, 1973) in Clifton, Idaho. He developed careers in education, business, and government, and was called to the Quorum of the twelve Apostles of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints on April 10, 1941. He became President of the Church on July 7, 1972 and served for only 18 months until his death.
BIONeal A. Maxwell
Neal A. Maxwell (1926-2004) grew up in Salt Lake City. He received a Master's degree in political science from the University of Utah and became involved in Utah politics. In 1970, he became Commissioner of Church Education and then, in 1974, became a general authority when called as an Assistant to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. He died in 2004.
BIODallin H. Oaks
Dallin H. Oaks (1932–present) was born in Provo, Utah, and became an apostle of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1984. After the death of his first wife, June Dixon Oaks, in 1998, he married Kristen M. McMain in 2000. He graduated from Brigham Young University (1954) and the University of Chicago Law School (1957). After practicing and teaching law in Chicago, he became the president of Brigham Young University from 1971 to 1980. He was then a justice of the Utah Supreme Court (1980–1984) before resigning to become an apostle. He was made the first counselor in the First Presidency and president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 2018.
BIORussell M. Nelson
Russell Marion Nelson Sr. (September 9, 1924 - present) is the current president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and retired surgeon. Nelson was born and raised in Salt Lake City, and received his medical degree from the University of Utah. As a cardiac surgeon, Nelson was a part of the medical team to develop the heart-lung machine in 1951. After spending two years in the U.S. Army Medical Corps during the Korean War, Nelson accepted a professorship at his alma mater and continued his practice as a cardiothoracic surgeon. Nelson accepted a call to join the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in 1984, and was called as president of the Church in 2018 following the passing of Thomas S. Monson. Nelson is the father of ten children by Dantzel White (d. 2005) and is currently married to former therapist and professor Wendy L. Watson.
BIOBrigham Young
Brigham Young (1801–1877) was an early Latter-day Saint leader. He was born in Whitingham, Vermont, and joined the faith in his twenties after two years of deliberation. He became the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles following the fractionalization of the Church in Kirtland, Ohio. After Joseph Smith's martyrdom in 1844, Young assumed the presidency and led the Latter-day Saints to settle in the Great Basin region. He was married to fifty-five women and fathered fifty-nine children from sixteen of his wives. He also served as the Territorial Governor for Utah Territory until 1857 and as the prophet until his death.
BIOHeber C. Kimball
Heber Chase Kimball (1801–1868) was an early Latter-day Saint leader. He was born in Sheldon, Vermont and was trained to be a potter at an early age. Kimball joined the faith through the preaching of Phineas Young, Brigham Young's brother. Kimball was appointed to be an apostle in the Church's first Quorum and served a mission to the United Kingdom. When the Saints were expelled from Missouri, Kimball, along with fellow apostle, Brigham Young, oversaw their flight across the Illinois state border. Kimball served as an apostle and counselor in the First Presidency under Joseph Smith and Brigham Young. Following Joseph Smith's death in 1844, Kimball aligned himself with the Quorum of the Twelve against the claims of opponents such as Sidney Rigdon and James J. Strang. In 1847, Kimball became a member of the newly-constituted First Presidency. Once the Saints had arrived in Utah, Kimball served as the Territorial Chief Justice and Lieutenant Governor. He died of injuries sustained in a carriage accident in 1868.
BIOErastus Snow
Erastus Snow (1818–1888) joined the Church in 1833 in Vermont. He served missions in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts and was ordained a member of the Seventy in 1836. He had 4 wives, 23 sons, and 13 daughters. He served as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles from 1849 until his death.
BIOGeorge Albert Smith
George Albert Smith (1870-1951) was the eighth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in Salt Lake City, he worked for Zion's Cooperative Mercantile Institution and later served a mission in the Southern States. In 1903, he became an apostle for the Church, and by 1945, had become the president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
BIODavid O. McKay
David Oman McKay (1873 – 1970) was born in Huntsville, Utah. He was the ninth president of the Church from 1951 to 1970. At the age of 32, he was ordained an apostle. President McKay expanded the mission of the Church worldwide, including creating the first stakes outside of the United States. He also emphasized family life and education. He died at age 96.
BIOLevi Edgar Young
Levi Edgar Young (February 2, 1874 – December 13, 1963) was a historian and the President of the Quorum of the Seventy. He served missions in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Temple Square and New England. He served on the faculty of the University of Utah and studied at Harvard as well as Columbia University.
BIOSpencer W. Kimball
Spencer W. Kimball (1895-1985) was born in Salt Lake City, Utah. He was the twelfth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Reared in Thatcher, Arizona, Kimball founded and ran a securities business as a young man and became involved in several Thatcher-area community organizations. He became an apostle in 1943, where he became a leading advocate for ministry to and work with indigenous Americans. As Church president, he became an advocate for the global expansion of the Church. In 1978, President Kimball received the revelation to lift the priesthood/temple restriction on peoples with African ancestry.
BIOEzra Taft Benson
Ezra Taft Benson (1899–1994) was born in Whitney, Idaho. He served as the Secretary of Agriculture under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961. He was ordained an Apostle and member of the Quorum of the Twelve in 1943. Benson later served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve from 1973 to 1985, when he was called as President of the Church.
BIOL. Tom Perry
Lowell Tom Perry (August 5, 1922 – May 30, 2015) was an apostle for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1974 until his death in 2015. Perry was born and raised in Logan, Utah and served a mission for the church in the Northern States Mission from 1942-1944. Perry served in the United States Marine Corps during the Second World War and was stationed in Saipan and later Nagasaki. Perry worked in business, until he was called into full time church service in 1972, and was ordained an apostle in 1974. Perry passed away from thyroid cancer in 2015.
[1]↩︎
An article on the Church's website on the subject of the Book of Mormon geography states the following:
The Church does not take a position on the specific geographic locations of Book of Mormon events in the ancient Americas. Speculation on the geography of the Book of Mormon may mislead instead of enlighten; such a study can be a distraction from its divine purpose.
The article quotes President Russell M. Nelson as stressing the spiritual importance of the book: “Interesting as [Book of Mormon geography] may be, study of the Book of Mormon is most rewarding when one focuses on its primary purpose—to testify of Jesus Christ. By comparison, all other issues are incidental.”
This statement was originally made by President Nelson during the October 1999 General Conference:
I would like to add my testimony of the divinity of this book. I have read it many times. I have also read much that has been written about it. Some authors have focused upon its stories, its people, or its vignettes of history. Others have been intrigued by its language structure or its records of weapons, geography, animal life, techniques of building, or systems of weights and measures. Interesting as these matters may be, study of the Book of Mormon is most rewarding when one focuses on its primary purpose—to testify of Jesus Christ. By comparison, all other issues are incidental.
The Church's Gospel Topics essay on DNA and the Book of Mormon similarly states: "Though there are several plausible hypotheses regarding the geographic locations of Book of Mormon events, the Church takes no official position except that the events occurred in the Americas."
[2]↩︎
In 1938, the book A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon, published by the Church, stated that "no one is justified in representing any one theory [of Book of Mormon geography] as the official explanation of the Church."
Writing in the Encyclopedia of Mormonism, a publication that had oversight from Church leaders, John E. Clark explained how "Church leadership officially and consistently distances itself from issues regarding Book of Mormon geography in order to focus attention on the spiritual message of the book." He continued,
The official position of the Church is that the events narrated in the Book of Mormon occurred somewhere in the Americas, but that the specific location has not been revealed. This position applies both to internal geographies and to external correlations. No internal geography has yet been proposed or approved by the Church, and none of the internal or external geographies proposed by individual members . . . has received approval.
[3]↩︎
The Church's statement on Book of Mormon geography says "individuals may have their own opinions regarding Book of Mormon geography and other such matters about which the Lord has not spoken."
It further states that "the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles urge leaders and members not to advocate those personal theories in any setting or manner that would imply either prophetic or Church support for those theories. All parties should strive to avoid contention on these matters."
- Official statement on the Church's website about its position on Book of Mormon geography.
[4]↩︎
John L. Sorenson, in his book Mormon's Map, identifies the "hourglass" shape as the "fundamental geographical configuration" of the Book of Mormon's internal geography. He supports this conclusion with passages like Alma 22:32, which describe a narrow neck of land separating a land northward from a land southward.
John E. Clark, a Latter-day Saint archaeologist, similarly argues that the "hourglass" shape characterizes the internal geography of the Book of Mormon.
- John L. Sorenson writes on the internal geography of the Book of Mormon.
- John Clark argues that the Book of Mormon describes an "hourglass" geography.
[5]↩︎
Jonathan Neville, a proponent of the Heartland model, acknowledges that "the framework for Book of Mormon geography is set forth in Alma 22, in which Mormon describes the way the land was divided between the Nephites and the Lamanites."
However, Neville interprets the chapter as referring to "an oval or a rectangle" as opposed to an "hourglass" shape.
- Jonathan Neville interprets Alma 22 to be referring to an oval or rectangle.
[6]↩︎
This map and description were published in a Church manual on the Book of Mormon in 2018.
- Map of Book of Mormon sites published in the Church's Book of Mormon student manual.
[7]↩︎
Writing in 1927, Latter-day Saint writer Janne M. Sjodahl reviewed several popular Book of Mormon geography theories of his time. His analysis highlights both the long-standing fascination of Church members with the subject and the ongoing lack of consensus regarding the book’s geographic setting.
Latter-day Saint historian Andrew H. Hedges, writing in a 2021 article in BYU Studies Quarterly, likewise notes how the question of where the Book of Mormon took place has been a topic of speculation and debate since Joseph Smith’s time, with no consensus emerging despite extensive discussion.
The lack of definitive archaeological evidence, such as inscriptions confirming Book of Mormon figures or locations, continues to be the central challenge for all models. Until such evidence emerges, according to Hedges, the geography of the Book of Mormon remains an open question with ongoing discussion but no universally accepted solution.
- Andrew H. Hedges reviews the major theories for Book of Mormon geography.
- Janne M. Sjodahl highlights different Book of Mormon geography theories.
[8]↩︎
This model was taught as early as 1840 and has traditionally been the most widely accepted within the Church. It was supported by prominent figures such as Orson Pratt and B. H. Roberts.
[9]↩︎
John L. Sorenson, an anthropologist at Brigham Young University, has advocated for the Mesoamerican model, presenting his arguments in influential works such as An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon and Mormon's Codex.
- Sorenson posits a central American geography model for BoM.
- John L. Sorenson argues for Cumorah being in Mexico.
[10]↩︎
The Heartland model has grown in popularity following the 2009 release of Rod Meldrum and Bruce Porter's book Prophecies and Promises: The Book of Mormon and the United States of America, which argues for a North American setting for the events of the Book of Mormon.
Jonathan Neville has also argues for this model in his book Moroni's America: The North American Setting for the Book of Mormon.
[11]↩︎
George D. Potter, an independent Book of Mormon scholar, argues for a South American geographical setting along the coast of the Pacific Ocean in his book Nephi in the Promised Land.
Venice Priddis, an independent Book of Mormon scholar, also argues for a South American setting in The Book and the Map.
[12]↩︎
Latter-day Saint scholar Michael R. Ash, in reviewing different Book of Mormon geography theories, notes that the hemispheric model works well as a surface-level reading of the geography described in the text:
Since the days of Joseph Smith most Saints believed that Book of Mormon events took place across the entire expanse of North and South America. This theory—referred to as the Hemispheric Geography Theory (HGT)—posits North America as the “land northward,” South America as the “land southward,” and present-day Panama as the “narrow neck” of land in between. This is a natural interpretation based on a cursory reading and superficial understanding of the Book of Mormon text. Most likely Joseph Smith, as well as the majority of Saints and leaders, unquestioningly accepted this model of Book of Mormon geography.
- Michael R. Ash reviews different Book of Mormon geography theories.
[13]↩︎
Orson Pratt was one of the first Latter-day Saints to articulate a geography theory for the Book of Mormon in print. In 1840 he articulated a hemispheric view of the book's geography.
- Orson Pratt argues for a hemispheric Book of Mormon geography.
[14]↩︎
Michael R. Ash, an independent Book of Mormon scholar, notes how one of the major problems with the Hemispheric model is that the travel distances described in the Book of Mormon do not seem to converge with this theory:
The decisive factor in opting for a limited geography is travel distance between extreme ends of Book of Mormon cities. Travel distances, where noted, are always mentioned in terms of how long the trip took. All travel distances that we can decipher from Book of Mormon events indicate a very limited scale, probably no more than a few hundred miles—perhaps a total area about the size of Tennessee.
- Michael R. Ash reviews different Book of Mormon geography theories.
[15]↩︎
Brant A. Gardner, an independent Book of Mormon scholar, notes how the hemispheric model suffers from conflicting archaeological evidence. He writes:
The archaeological and anthropological evidence are also clear that there were people in the New World prior to any mentioned in the Book of Mormon, and that the traceable genetic heritage of the Native Americans currently points clearly to massive infusions of populations from Asia rather than the Middle East.
- Brant A. Gardner writes on Book of Mormon geography, highlighting the major models.
[16]↩︎
Writing in the Ensign in 1984, John L. Sorenson says that "we can identify in Mesoamerica almost all of the kinds of geographical and cultural features specified by the Book of Mormon." This includes literacy/writing, seasonal warfare, metallurgy, complex civilizations, and geographical features that appear to match the text (such as rivers, mountains, and an isthmus or "narrow neck of land").
- John L. Sorenson writes (Part 1) in support of the Mesoamerican model in the Ensign.
- John L. Sorenson writes (Part 2) in support of the Mesoamerican model in the Ensign.
[17]↩︎
In a two-part series of the Ensign written in 1984, John L. Sorenson reviewed what appear to be strong convergences with the type of civilization described in the Book of Mormon and what has been discovered by archaeological work in Mesoamerica.
One such factor, for example, is literacy or an attested writing system. Brant Gardner, in his 2007 commentary on the Book of Mormon, notes how "the attractions of this model are fairly clear. . . . [Mesoamerica] produced the only known examples of indigenous writing. Because the Book of Mormon is de facto evidence of literacy, it makes some sense to begin looking in the only location on the hemisphere with a written language."
[18]↩︎
The traditional location of the Hill Cumorah, the final battle place of the Nephites and Lamanites, has been in New York. This identification goes back as far as William Phelps and Oliver Cowdery.
Those who argue for a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon, such as David A. Palmer, have had to posit that the location of the final battle happened in Mexico at a different hill from the one in New York, a position at odds with traditional teachings.
[19]↩︎
Writing in 1993, Latter-day Saint archaeologist Deanne G. Matheny critiqued the Mesoamerican model that sees the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the "narrow neck of land" because of issues with directionality.
In order for [Sorenson's] model to fit the geography of Mesoamerica, one must assume that the Nephites had a system of directions with cardinal directions skewed “45 degrees or more" off of the usually observed cardinals (Sorenson 1985, 39). Unfortunately Sorenson never gives an exact figure and provides no map showing Nephite cardinals. . . . Based on Sorenson's model . . . true north and "Nephite north" . . . are more than 60 degrees apart. In other words, the whole directional card must be shifted more than 60 degrees to the west for this model to fit the geography of the chosen area.
- Deanne G. Matheny critiques John Sorenson's geography model on the issue of directionality.
[20]↩︎
For example, Joseph Smith's identification of the remains of a Lamanite or his comment about traveling over "the plains of the Nephites" in Illinois in 1834 have urged some Mesoamerican proponents, such as Mark Alan Wright, to propose migrations of Book of Mormon peoples from Mesoamerica into what is now the United States.
- Mark Alan Wright argues that Zelph is evidence for a Book of Mormon "hinterland" outside Mesoamerica.
- JS refers to the plains of the Nephites, bones as proof of BOM.
[21]↩︎
Proponents of the Heartland Model have identified correlations between the Book of Mormon and the ancient Hopewell civilization, emphasizing similarities in agriculture, fortifications, mound structures, and travel systems.
- Rod L. Meldrum cites 45 correlations between the Book of Mormon and ancient Hopewell peoples.
- David R. Hocking and Rod L. Meldrum provide 50 correlations between the Hopewell and the Book of Mormon.
[22]↩︎
In a letter to Emma Smith dated June 4, 1834, Joseph Smith described Zion’s Camp traveling across the "plains of the Nephites," suggesting that he saw a connection between the Book of Mormon and North American locations.
- Joseph tells Emma about the "plains of the Nephites" and recounting Book of Mormon history while on Zion's camp.
[23]↩︎
Advocates of the Heartland Model frequently cite purported ancient artifacts such as the Los Lunas Decalogue Stone, the Bat Creek Stone, the Newark Holy Stones, and the Tucson Lead Artifacts as evidence for Book of Mormon events in North America. These artifacts commonly appear in Heartland publications as supporting material.
However, scholarly consensus overwhelmingly identifies them as modern forgeries. A 2019 article published by Book of Mormon Central, citing other academic studies, has reviewed the evidence for these artifacts as being inauthentic, undermining their credibility as evidence for the Heartland Model.
[24]↩︎
A key claim of the Heartland Model is that Haplogroup X provides a genetic link between Native American groups in the United States and the Middle East, supporting a Book of Mormon connection. However, both Latter-day Saint and non-Latter-day Saint geneticists have rejected it as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[25]↩︎
In 1841 and 1842, Joseph Smith made statements linking archaeological findings from Central America to the Book of Mormon. In an 1841 letter to John M. Bernhisel, Joseph said the book Incidents of Travel by John Lloyd Stephens describing Mesoamerican ruins "corresponds with & supports the testimony of the Book of Mormon." A year later, Joseph, in an article signed "Ed.," wrote:
If men, in their researches into the history of this country, in noticing the mounds, fortifications, statues, architecture, implements of war, of husbandry, and ornaments of silver, brass, &c.-were to examine the Book of Mormon, their conjectures would be removed, and their opinions altered; uncertainty and doubt would be changed into certainty and facts; and they would find that those things that they are anxiously prying into were matters of history, unfolded in that book. . . . Stephens and Catherwood's researches in Central America abundantly testify of this thing. The stupendous ruins, the elegant sculpture, and the magnificence of the ruins of Guatamala [Guatemala], and other cities, corroborate this statement, and show that a great and mighty people-men of great minds, clear intellect, bright genius, and comprehensive designs inhabited this continent. Their ruins speak of their greatness; the Book of Mormen [Mormon} unfolds their history.
This presents a challenge for the Heartland Model, which asserts that Joseph knew by revelation that Book of Mormon events occurred exclusively in North America, particularly in the Midwestern and Northeastern United States.
- Joseph cites Incidents of Travel as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
- Joseph thanks John M. Bernhisel for his gift of a book on Central America.
[26]↩︎
Early Church leaders such as Orson Pratt and Oliver Cowdery were reportedly teaching that Lehi and his family landed in Chile in South America. Pratt argued for this position in his 1840 booklet A Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions, writing, "they were safely brought across the great Pacific Ocean, and landed upon the western coast of South America."
[27]↩︎
George D. Potter, in his book Nephi in the Promised Land, highlights pre-Columbian metallurgy and other "archaeological and anthropological information available that supports the history of the Book of Mormon having transpired in Peru."
- George Potter argues that South America is the land of the Book of Mormon.
[28]↩︎
As with the Mesoamerican model, the South America model is at odds with the traditional location of the Hill Cumorah being in New York.
- W. W. Phelps identifies the Hill Cumorah as being in New York.
- Oliver Cowdery identifies the Hill Cumorah as being in New York.
[29]↩︎
When reviewing the geography model that places Book of Mormon events primarily in Peru, Michael R. Ash, an independent scholar, notes how the model has a problem "matching a river to the requirements of the River Sidon as described in the Book of Mormon text."
Additionally, "In the Peruvian model the primary archaeological evidence for large populations come from people who are far too late to be connected with Book of Mormon peoples."
- Michael R. Ash reviews different Book of Mormon geography theories.
[30]↩︎
Brant A. Gardner, in his review of this model, notes how as with the Hemispheric model "this hypothesis also flounders on the problem of distance, locating most of the important events near the Isthmus of Panama, but identifying a landing site farther south than travel time allows."
- Brant A. Gardner writes on Book of Mormon geography, highlighting the major models.
[31]↩︎
The Book of Mormon describes a series of catastrophic events in 3 Nephi 8–10 that dramatically altered the landscape. Fierce storms, violent winds, and massive earthquakes affected the land (3 Nephi 8:5–7), destroying cities through fire, water, and earth movements (3 Nephi 9:5–12). Entire cities were burned (Zarahemla), buried (Moronihah), or submerged (Moroni) in the sea (3 Nephi 8:8–10). Highways were broken up and landforms shifted so drastically that the face of the land was changed (3 Nephi 8:11–13).
[32]↩︎
Centuries later, the cities and lands involved in the Nephite-Lamanite wars (Alma 45–62) remained identifiable to Mormon, indicating that the geographic framework of the Book of Mormon persisted despite the cataclysmic events of 3 Nephi.
Key internal geographic features, such as the narrow neck of land, major cities, and the division between the land northward and land southward, continue to be referenced long after the destruction (Alma 22:27–34, Mormon 2:28–29), reinforcing the idea that recognizable landmarks endured.
[33]↩︎
John L. Sorenson, in speaking on Book of Mormon geography, notes:
Mormon and Moroni both lived and wrote after the catastrophic changes. They had no trouble identifying locations they personally knew in their lifetimes with places referred to by Alma or Helaman before the catastrophe. Nothing about the precrucifixion geography seems to have puzzled them. . . . Thus the record itself gives no justification for supposing that the form or nature of the land changed in any essentials, despite the impressive destruction that signaled the Savior's death.
Brant A. Gardner, in his commentary on the Book of Mormon, similarly explains how even though the text states that the "whole face of the land was changed," this phrase refers to the visible surface of the land rather than a complete geographic reordering.
The types of destructive forces described in 3 Nephi could change the face of the land through earthquakes, volcanic action, and destructive winds, but there is no indication that basic principles of geography were altered. North does not become south. Geographic strata are not reshuffled. They might rise or lower, but they remain ordered. . . . Mormon appears to have had no problem relating to the geography of events before the cataclysms accompanying Christ's death, even though, naturally, he knew the topography only after those catastrophes.
- Brant A. Gardner writes on Book of Mormon geography, highlighting the major models.
- John L. Sorenson writes that the destruction in 3 Nephi did not fundamentally change Book of Mormon geography.
[34]↩︎
In a 2014 article, Latter-day Saint scholar Neal Rappleye, in surveying different Book of Mormon geography theories, noted how researchers typically prioritize one of three types of evidence: (1) Prophetic Priority, using statements from Church leaders or prophetic passages to identify locations, (2) Anthropological Priority, relying on archaeological, cultural, and genetic data, or (3) Geographic Priority, focusing on internal geographic clues from the Book of Mormon text.
Rappleye notes how the chosen priority heavily influences conclusions about Book of Mormon geography, as the initial evidence often dictates the location and shapes how other evidence is interpreted.
- Neal Rappleye writes on how different methodological approaches result in different Book of Mormon geography theories.
[35]↩︎
Heartland proponents Bruce H. Porter and Rod Meldrum claim that "the Prophet Joseph Smith did, in fact, know about the geographical setting for the Book of Mormon," and further that "he did, in fact, claim inspiration for the statements he made about its geography."
They view prioritizing his statements as a methodological key in deciphering Book of Mormon geography.
- Bruce H. Porter and Rod L. Meldrum argue that Joseph Smith's statements place the Book of Mormon in North America.
[36]↩︎
Mesoamerica proponent John L. Sorenson has emphasized placing the internal statements of the Book of Mormon before other forms of data, leading him to conclude: "The Nephites, including Mormon, conceived of the lands of concern to them as centered in the isthmian zone that connected two larger territories, the land northward and the land southward."
- John L. Sorenson writes on the internal geography of the Book of Mormon.
- Sorenson posits a central American geography model for BoM.
[37]↩︎
Latter-day Saint historian Andrew H. Hedges has explored the historical development and diversity of thought regarding Book of Mormon geography among Latter-day Saints. His article published in 2007 reviewed early statements by Joseph Smith and other Church leaders, showing that no definitive geographic model was established in the early Church. Instead, various interpretations and theories emerged, influenced by textual analysis, archaeological discoveries, and personal beliefs.
- Andrew H. Hedges reviews the statements made by Joseph Smith and other early Saints on Book of Mormon geography.
[38]↩︎
Mesoamerican proponents emphasize Joseph Smith's lack of direct revelations on the subject of Book of Mormon geography and interpret his comments as reflective of broader speculative interests rather than specific and authoritative geographic identifications.
In contrast, Heartland proponents often give more weight to Joseph Smith’s statements for developing their model, using these to support their belief that the Book of Mormon geography centered in the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys.
The two groups differ in how much authority they attribute to Joseph’s statements versus textual and archaeological evidence.
[39]↩︎
This comment was made in a letter to newspaper editor Noah C. Saxton. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph calls the Book of Mormon a record of "our western Tribes of Indians."
[40]↩︎
Joseph wrote this letter to Emma on June 4, 1834, one day after the discovery of the skeletal remains Joseph identified as the Lamanite warrior Zelph. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph tells Emma about the "plains of the Nephites" and recounting Book of Mormon history while on Zion's camp.
- RM recalls JS remarks about Z, including arrow in ribs, white Lamanite, and "Omandagus".
[41]↩︎
This account of the Angel Moroni's appearance was recorded in Joseph's journal in November 1835. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph narrates how Moroni described the origins of Native Americans.
[42]↩︎
This account from Joseph Smith's 1838 manuscript history was canonized in the Pearl of Great Price (Joseph Smith–History 1:34).
[43]↩︎
Joseph said this in a letter to John M. Bernhisel, who had gifted Joseph with a copy of the book Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph thanks John M. Bernhisel for his gift of a book on Central America.
[44]↩︎
Joseph Smith published this in the editorial "Church History," also known as the Wentworth Letter, in March 1842 in the Times and Seasons. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph touches on Book of Mormon geography in his 1842 "Church History" editorial.
[45]↩︎
This article, published in the Times and Seasons in May 1842, was signed with “–Ed.” at the end, indicating that Joseph Smith, as editor, authored its contents. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph as editor of Times and Seasons publishes on evidence for the Book of Mormon in Kentucky.
[46]↩︎
This article, published in the Times and Seasons in June 1842, was signed with “–Ed.” at the end, indicating that Joseph Smith, as editor, authored its contents. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph cites evidence from Central America in favor of the Book of Mormon.
[47]↩︎
This article, published in the Times and Seasons in July 1842, was signed with “–Ed.” at the end, indicating that Joseph Smith, as editor, authored its contents. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph cites Incidents of Travel as evidence for the Book of Mormon.
[48]↩︎
This letter was composed by Joseph Smith on September 7, 1842, and is now canonized as Section 128 of the Doctrine and Covenants. Spelling and punctuation have been standardized.
- Joseph identifies the hill in New York as Cumorah.
[49]↩︎
This account of meeting Native American tribal leaders in May 1844 was preserved in Joseph Smith's Nauvoo journal by scribe Willard Richards.
- Joseph talks with Native Americans about the Book of Mormon.
[50]↩︎
While Joseph Smith made statements and oversaw publications that touched on the topic of Book of Mormon geography, these appear to reflect his personal interests or interpretations rather than direct revelation. There is no known revelatory statement from Joseph Smith identifying any specific Book of Mormon locations.
Elder John A. Widtsoe, writing in 1950, observed that "as far as can be learned, the Prophet Joseph Smith, translator of the book, did not say where, on the American continent, Book of Mormon activities occurred. Perhaps he did not know."
After examining the known comments from Joseph about Book of Mormon geography, Latter-day Saint scholar Matthew Roper concluded:
The preponderance of evidence does not support the claim that Joseph Smith’s revelations included details about Book of Mormon geography, but rather suggest that this, as with many other questions, was an issue in which Joseph Smith, as time allowed him to give it attention, followed the dictates of his own judgement and expressed his own opinion.
- John A. Widtsoe cautions that Book of Mormon geography is not definitively known.
- Matthew Roper concludes there is no known revelatory statement from Joseph Smith on Book of Mormon geography.
[51]↩︎
In her 1844 memoir, Lucy Mack Smith, Joseph's mother, described how the angel Moroni informed Joseph about the ancient inhabitants of America, which he then shared with the family:
In the course of our evening conversations, Joseph would give us some of the most amusing recitals imaginable. He would describe the ancient inhabitants of this continent—their dress, their manner of traveling, the animals they rode, the cities they built, the structure of their buildings, every detail of their mode of warfare, and their religious worship—as vividly as though he had spent his life with them.
However, Lucy does not specify where in ancient America Joseph located these events.
- Lucy Mack Smith describes Joseph being told about the ancient Nephites by Moroni.
[52]↩︎
One of the earliest Church leaders to comment on Book of Mormon geography was William W. Phelps, who periodically published statements on the topic in the Church’s first newspaper, the Evening and Morning Star.
[53]↩︎
Orson Pratt articulated a hemispheric view of Book of Mormon geography in his 1840 booklet Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions.
- Orson Pratt argues for a hemispheric Book of Mormon geography.
[54]↩︎
George Q. Cannon wrote this in the July 1887 issue of the Juvenile Instructor. Although he felt the locations of the Hill Cumorah (New York), the land place of Lehi (Chile), and the River Sidon (Columbia) were known because of statements attributed to Joseph Smith, he nevertheless felt it was unwise to draw up an "official" Church-endorsed map of Book of Mormon geography.
- George Q. Cannon writes that Book of Mormon maps are not advised because they differ so much.
[55]↩︎
Cannon published these remarks in the January 1890 issue of the Juvenile Instructor.
- George Q. Cannon discusses Book of Mormon geography; emphasizes the Church's neutrality.
[56]↩︎
President Joseph F. Smith made this comment at a meeting on the Book of Mormon at Brigham Young University in May 1903.
- Deseret Evening News reports a meeting on Church leaders and scholars meeting to discuss Book of Mormon geography.
[57]↩︎
Roberts wrote this in volume 3 of his series New Witnesses for God, published in 1909.
- B. H. Roberts writes that Book of Mormon geography theories will have to change with more evidence.
[58]↩︎
Talmage wrote this in a letter dated February 23, 1923, to Jean R. Driggs, a Latter-day Saint who had made a proposed map of Book of Mormon geography.
- James E. Talmage says Church leaders have not approved an official Book of Mormon geography.
[59]↩︎
Anthony W. Ivins made this statement during the April 1929 General Conference of the Church.
- Anthony W. Ivins says that Book of Mormon geography has not been revealed.
[60]↩︎
Talmage said this in an April 1929 session of General Conference.
- James E. Talmage says Book of Mormon geography is not definitively known or settled.
[61]↩︎
John A. Widtsoe published these comments in the July 1950 issue of the Improvement Era.
- John A. Widtsoe cautions that Book of Mormon geography is not definitively known.
[62]↩︎
Petersen made this comment in a speech for religious educators in 1954.
- Mark E. Petersen says speculation about Book of Mormon geography is not doctrine.
[63]↩︎
Lee made this comment speaking to cast members of the Hill Cumorah pageant in July 1973.
- The Church News reports on Harold B. Lee speaking at the Hill Cumorah.
[64]↩︎
Maxwell published this comment in his book But For A Small Moment.
- Neal A. Maxwell says Book of Mormon peoples may have been located "located in Meso–America or elsewhere."
[65]↩︎
These comments were delivered on October 29, 1993, at the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies.
- Dallin H. Oaks says he learned to read the Book of Mormon in a limited geography context in the 1950s during his time as a student at BYU.
[66]↩︎
Nelson said this during the October 1999 General Conference.
- Russell M. Nelson teaches to focus on the spiritual message of the Book of Mormon.
[67]↩︎
In 1972, BYU released the short film Ancient America Speaks, which "takes the viewer into Central and South America and shows many of the archaeological evidences for the Book of Mormon." The film also "links the legends of a 'great white god' with the Book of Mormon account of the Savior's visit to ancient America."
- Reference entry on BYU website for "Ancient America Speaks."
[68]↩︎
According to its website:
The New World Archaeological Foundation is an archaeological research and teaching entity administered by the Department of Anthropology at Brigham Young University. The research focus is the study of the origins and subsequent trajectory of civilization (complex societies) in the New World with special emphasis on Mesoamerica. Related to that study is the dissemination of findings through the NWAF Papers and other professional outlets. The NWAF also exists to enrich BYU student experience through mentoring/internship opportunities.
The NWAF was incorporated in 1952 and has included both Latter-day Saint and non-Latter-day Saint archaeologists on its team. From the outset, the NWAF has been careful to remain a scholarly enterprise that does not comment on Book of Mormon matters.
- Mission statement of the New World Archaeological Foundation.
- Daniel C. Peterson reviews the history of the NWAF.
[69]↩︎
Latter-day Saint scholar Terryl Givens explained:
The first edition to incorporate major changes was the 1879 edition, which LDS apostle Orson Pratt edited. He organized the book using the same versification system current in today’s editions and added extensive footnotes. Most of those cross-referenced other scriptures, but one innovation he introduced was the keying of Book of Mormon place names to modern geographical counterparts. Zarahemla, in this system, is annotated as "north of the head waters of the river Magdalena . . . south of the isthmus" (Omni 1:13).
- Terryl Givens discusses Orson Pratt's edition of the Book of Mormon.
[70]↩︎
In Pratt's footnotes, for instance, the Hill Cumorah is identified as being in New York, Lehi's landing place is on the coast of Chile, the Land of Nephi is equated with Ecuador, the land of Lehi is South America, the land of Mulek is North America, and the river Sidon is the Magdalena river in Columbia.
- Orson Pratt, as editor of the 1879 Book of Mormon, provides footnotes giving geography details for the Book of Mormon.
[71]↩︎
The 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon was prepared by a committee of apostles, including George F. Richards, Anthony W. Ivins, Joseph Fielding Smith, James E. Talmage, and Melvin J. Ballard. Terryl Givens has noted:
James E. Talmage supervised the next major edition in 1920. Adopting a more prudent position regarding Book of Mormon geography, he eliminated all geographical footnotes. Double columns and chapter summaries brought the edition to the layout familiar to today’s readers.
- Terryl Givens discusses Orson Pratt's edition of the Book of Mormon.
- Richard E. Turley, Jr. discusses the publication of the 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon.
[72]↩︎
For example, some editions of the Book of Mormon printed in the early 1960s featured photographs of Central and South American artifacts and archaeological sites. While the exact reason for their inclusion is unclear, the images were likely meant to illustrate the text with potential evidence or to evoke a possible cultural setting of the Book of Mormon, rather than to promote a specific geographic model.
- Edition of the Book of Mormon from 1962 contains photographs of artifacts and ruins from Central and South America.
[73]↩︎
The Hill Cumorah, as described in the Book of Mormon, is the site of the final battles between the Nephites and Lamanites around 385 A.D. It was here that Mormon, the Nephite prophet, gathered his people in a last attempt to defend themselves, but they were ultimately destroyed in a catastrophic battle (Mormon 6:1-15). Mormon hid most of the Nephite records within the hill for preservation and entrusted a set of abridged records to his son Moroni (Mormon 6:6).
- David A. Palmer provides an entry for "Cumorah" in the Encyclopedia of Mormonism.
[74]↩︎
William W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdery provided some of the earliest documented instances of Latter-day Saints identifying the hill in New York, where Joseph Smith obtained the plates, as the same ancient hill where the Nephites perished in their final battle against the Lamanites.
Orson Pratt made this same identification, writing in 1882:
The Hill Cumorah is situated in western New York. . . . [It is] distinguished as the great battle-field on which, and near which, two powerful nations were concentrated with all their forces, men, women, and children, and fought till hundreds of thousands on both sides were hewn down, and left to moulder upon the ground.
Similarly, James E. Talmage wrote in 1899 that "the hill, which was known by one division of the ancient peoples as Cumorah, by another as Ramah, is situated near Palmyra in the county of Wayne, State of New York."
In the twentieth century, General Authorities such as Joseph Fielding Smith and Mark E. Petersen also affirmed that the Hill Cumorah is in New York.
[75]↩︎
Based on currently available evidence, Joseph Smith referred to the hill in New York as Cumorah only once, near the end of his life (D&C 128:20). By that time, the hill was already commonly referred to as Cumorah among Latter-day Saints.
In his 1838 history, now canonized in the Pearl of Great Price, Joseph did not explicitly identify the hill where he found the plates as Cumorah. Instead, he simply described it as "a hill of considerable size, and the most elevated of any in the neighborhood" (Joseph Smith–History 1:51).
- Joseph identifies the hill in New York as Cumorah.
[76]↩︎
Rex C. Reeve Jr., in the Encyclopedia of Latter-Day Saint History, notes:
Those who assume that the final Book of Mormon events took place in what is now the northeastern United States believe that the hill in upstate New York is the only hill called Cumorah. Others conclude there must be two hills called Cumorah: one in Central America, where they believe the final battles of the Book of Mormon took place; and the other in New York, where Moroni ultimately buried the gold plates he later delivered to Joseph Smith.
Latter-day Saint authors such as David Palmer and John L. Sorenson have argued for identifying the Hill Cumorah of the Book of Mormon with the hill Cerro EI Vigía in Mexico.
[77]↩︎
Two Latter-day Saint scholars, Matthew Roper and Andrew Hedges, debated the location of the Hill Cumorah in the Religious Educator journal in 2009. Roper defended the Mesoamerican Model, arguing that the final battles of the Jaredites and Nephites likely occurred near the narrow neck of land, consistent with descriptions in the Book of Mormon text. He emphasized the need to prioritize textual evidence when evaluating geographical models.
In contrast, Hedges challenged the assumptions of the Mesoamerican Model, contending that the Book of Mormon does not explicitly require the final battles to have taken place near the narrow neck of land. He suggested that the hill where Joseph Smith found the gold plates in New York could correspond to the Book of Mormon's Cumorah and proposed that the final battles might have occurred far from the central events described in the text.
These articles illustrate differing interpretations of the Book of Mormon's geographic descriptions, highlighting the ongoing scholarly debate among Latter-day Saints regarding the location of Cumorah.
- Matthew Roper argues the location of the Hill Cumorah in the Book of Mormon best corresponds with Mesoamerica.
- Andrew H. Hedges argues the Hill Cumorah could correspond to the hill in New York.
[78]↩︎
John A. Widtsoe, writing in 1950, observed, "There is a controversy . . . about the Hill Cumorah—not about the location where the Book of Mormon plates were found, but whether it is the hill under that name near which Nephite events took place."
In 1966, Harold B. Lee addressed a group of religious educators, stating:
Some say the Hill Cumorah was in southern Mexico (and someone pushed it down still farther) and not in western New York. Well, if the Lord wanted us to know where it was, or where Zarahemla was, he’d have given us latitude and longitude, don’t you think? And why bother our heads trying to discover with archaeological certainty the geographical locations of the cities of the Book of Mormon like Zarahemla?
- John A. Widtsoe cautions that Book of Mormon geography is not definitively known.
- Harold B. Lee indicates the Lord has not revealed the location of the Hill Cumorah.
[79]↩︎
Writing in 1968 in the Church periodical The Instructor, Paul R. Chessman explained:
There are those who believe that there are two Hill Cumorahs. Their theory is that the hill on which Mormon fought the last battle with the Lamanites is not the same hill in which Joseph Smith found the gold plates. Advocates of this theory establish their analysis primarily from the internal evidences of the Book of Mormon. Others conclude that there is only one Hill Cumorah, and that the place where Joseph Smith and Moroni met was the same place Mormon and Moroni visited in the fifth century. There is no official Church view.
A 1993 private memo from the First Presidency to Brent Hall of FARMS (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies) reaffirmed the Church’s neutrality on the location of the Hill Cumorah. This memo—closely mirroring a statement in the Encyclopedia of Mormonism—was prompted by a 1990 letter from F. Michael Watson, secretary to the First Presidency, which seemed to suggest that the Church's official position was that the Hill Cumorah was in New York.
The lead historians of the Saints series explained that volume 1 of Saints deliberately omitted mention of the Hill Cumorah in New York to reflect the Church’s neutral stance on Book of Mormon geography.
[80]↩︎
Accounts of the "Cumorah Cave" began appearing in the 1850s, with versions of the claim preserved by Heber C. Kimball, Wilford Woodruff, Brigham Young, David Whitmer, and Orson Pratt. These accounts describe the cave as a repository of sacred records and other relics, including the sword of Laban.
[81]↩︎
Latter-day Saint archaeologist John E. Clark noted in a 2004 article in the Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: "In accord with these general observations about New York and Pennsylvania, we come to our principal object—the Hill Cumorah. Archaeologically speaking, it is a clean hill. No artifacts, no walls, no trenches, no arrowheads. The area immediately surrounding the hill is similarly clean. Pre-Columbian people did not settle or build here."
- John E. Clark writes on the archaeology of the Hill Cumorah.
[82]↩︎
The surviving accounts are all late hearsay (second and thirdhand) that vary significantly in some of their details. Discrepancies include whether the experience was visionary or physical (Heber C. Kimball referred to it as a "vision" in his 1856 account), who was involved in witnessing or describing the cave (with some accounts naming only Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, while others include Hyrum Smith and David Whitmer), and whether the depository was located in the Hill Cumorah or in a different nearby hill, as David Whitmer claimed in an 1878 interview.
Neither Joseph Smith nor Oliver Cowdery left any direct reports confirming the existence of such a cave full of records and Nephite artifacts. Consequently, these accounts remain speculative and lack support from contemporary, firsthand documentation.
Historian Cameron J. Packer, writing in the Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, summarized how "with these reports of a cave in the Hill Cumorah comes the question, Was this a real cave that Joseph and others actually walked into, or was it a visionary, or 'virtual,' experience? The wording of the accounts leaves the issue open."
- Cameron J. Packer reviews the sources behind the "Cumorah Cave".
[83]↩︎
This photograph was taken by George Edward Anderson (1860–1928) on August 14, 1907. Source: BYU Digital Collections.
[84]↩︎
Section 125 is short, only four verses, and reads in full:
1 What is the will of the Lord concerning the saints in the Territory of Iowa? 2 Verily, thus saith the Lord, I say unto you, if those who call themselves by my name and are essaying to be my saints, if they will do my will and keep my commandments concerning them, let them gather themselves together unto the places which I shall appoint unto them by my servant Joseph, and build up cities unto my name, that they may be prepared for that which is in store for a time to come. 3 Let them build up a city unto my name upon the land opposite the city of Nauvoo, and let the name of Zarahemla be named upon it. 4 And let all those who come from the east, and the west, and the north, and the south, that have desires to dwell therein, take up their inheritance in the same, as well as in the city of Nashville, or in the city of Nauvoo, and in all the stakes which I have appointed, saith the Lord.
[85]↩︎
Section 125 was given in March 1841. Nearly two year earlier, on July 2, 1839, Joseph Smith met with the Saints in Iowa across the river from Nauvoo and "advised that a town be built there." In Joseph's manuscript history, this journal entry was expanded to read that he "advised that a town be built there <and be called Zarahemla>."
As further explained by the editors of the Joseph Smith Papers: "According to William Clayton’s diary, [Joseph] believed the intent of the revelation was to consolidate the scattered Latter-day Saint settlements in Iowa for the sake of safety."
[86]↩︎
The entry given in History of the Church reads:
We pursued our course up the river, mostly through timber, for about eighteen miles, when we arrived at Colonel Lyman Wight's home. He lives at the foot of Tower Hill (a name I gave the place in consequence of the remains of an old Nephite altar or tower that stood there), where we camped for the Sabbath.
- History of the Church entry speaks of Joseph identifying a "Nephite altar."
[87]↩︎
The source for the History of the Church entry comes from Joseph Smith’s journal, kept by George W. Robinson. The original journal entry states:
We next kept up the river mostly in the timber for ten miles, untill we came to Col. Lyman Wight’s who lives at the foot of Tower Hill, a name appropriated by Prest smith, in consequence of the remains of an old Nephitish Alter an Tower
In the History of the Church, this account was rewritten in the first person, as if Joseph Smith himself described the altar as "Nephite." However, the original entry is in the third person, attributed to Robinson, who recorded the journal. It is unclear whether Robinson or Joseph Smith was the one who considered the altar "Nephitish."
- Joseph's journal records discovering a "Nephitish alter."
- History of the Church entry speaks of Joseph identifying a "Nephite altar."
[88]↩︎
Latter-day Saint historian Alexander L. Baugh, commenting on this incident, writes,
On this same occasion Joseph Smith also stated that his company discovered the remains of “an old Nephitish Alter [sic] an[d] Tower.” It is important to note that the account given in the Prophet’s published history has been altered and incorrectly identifies that what they discovered on this occasion was “an old Nephite altar or tower”—the word Nephite replacing Nephitish, suggesting that the remains originated with the Nephite civilization in the Book of Mormon. To add to the confusion, later accounts given by some of the Prophet’s contemporaries incorrectly identified the structure as being an altar constructed by Adam. But Joseph Smith’s record does not describe it as being Nephite or Adamic. The entry made by Robinson simply states that the company discovered the remains of an ancient (“old”) Native American Indian (“Nephitish”) structure of some kind (fig. 9).
- Alexander L. Baugh writes on Joseph Smith discovering a "Nephitish alter."
[89]↩︎
In an article published in 1888, Andrew Jenson attributed to Joseph Smith the location of the ancient city of Manti (emphasis added):
Tuesday [September] 25th [1838]. The camp passed through Huntsville, Randolph Co., which had been appointed as one of the Stakes of Zion, and which the Prophet said was the ancient site of the City of Manti, and pitched tents at Dark Creek, Salt Licks ; 17 miles. It was reported to the camp that 110 men had volunteered from Randolph and gone to Far West to settle difficulties.
- Andrew Jenson attributes Joseph Smith as identifying the ancient city of Manti.
[90]↩︎
The source for Andrew Jenson's attribution of the ancient city of Manti to Joseph Smith originates from the journal of Latter-day Saint Samuel D. Tyler, who recorded:
We passed thro Huntsville, Co. seat Randolph Co. Pop. 450 & three miles further we bought 32 bu. of corn of one of the brethren who resides in this place There are several of the brethren round about here & this is the ancient site of the City of Manti, which is spoken of in the Book of Mormon & this is appointed one of the Stakes of Zion and it is in Randolph Co. Mo. 3 miles west of the Co. seat.
However, Tyler's journal provides no indication that this information came from Joseph Smith. It appears instead to simply be local hearsay among the Saints in Missouri. Jenson's attribution was a mistaken assumption based on Tyler’s account.
- Samuel D. Tyler records identifying the location of Manti.
[91]↩︎
While the accounts vary in some details, they consistently describe Joseph speaking about Zelph as a notable figure who fought in significant battles.
For more information, see "Zelph the Lamanite."
[92]↩︎
Heartland Model proponents cite the Zelph incident as evidence supporting their view that Book of Mormon events occurred in the continental United States.
In contrast, Mesoamerican Model advocate Mark Alan Wright argues that the Zelph episode does not directly address Book of Mormon geography. Instead, he suggests it points to the possibility of migrations by Book of Mormon peoples beyond the core events of the text, which he believes were centered in Mesoamerica.
- Mark Alan Wright argues that Zelph is evidence for a Book of Mormon "hinterland" outside Mesoamerica.
- Bruce H. Porter and Rod L. Meldrum argue that Joseph Smith's statements place the Book of Mormon in North America.
[93]↩︎
The 1884 publication A Compendium of the Doctrines of the Gospel contained the following revelation attributed to Joseph Smith:
LEHI'S TRAVELS.—Revelation to Joseph the Seer. The course that Lehi and his company traveled from Jerusalem to the place of their destination: They traveled nearly a south, southeast direction until they came to the nineteenth degree of north latitude; then, nearly east to the Sea of Arabia, then sailed in a southeast direction, and landed on the continent of South America, in Chili, thirty degrees south latitude.
The source of this text is from the writings of Frederick G. Williams, circa Early to Mid-1830s.
- Revelation attributed to Joseph Smith locates Lehi's landing place as Chile.
- Frederick G. Williams identifies Chile as the landing spot of Lehi.
[94]↩︎
The 1884 attribution originates from a manuscript written by Frederick G. Williams in the mid-1830s. While Williams was close to Joseph, there is no conclusive evidence in the historical record to show that this information came from Joseph Smith. It is more likely the result of Williams’s own speculation.
Writing in 1938, Frederick J. Pack, Chairman of the Church's Gospel Doctrine Committee, concluded after looking into this issue:
In summary, the most that can be said with certainty of the manuscript statement is that it bears good evidence of having been written by the hand of Frederick G. Williams. He himself, however, gives no indication of the identity of its author; neither does he claim it to be of divine origin. The Church has issued no information concerning the route followed by Lehi and his company. Until this is done, teachers of the Gospel Doctrine department should refrain from expressing definite opinions.
- Frederick G. Williams identifies Chile as the landing spot of Lehi.
- Frederick J. Pack concludes it is unlikely Joseph actually said Lehi landed in Chile.
[95]↩︎
For instance, in his 1838 history now canonized in the Pearl of Great Price, Joseph described the Book of Mormon as "an account of the former inhabitants of this continent, and the source from whence they sprang" (Joseph Smith–History 1:34).
Likewise, in his 1842 Wentworth Letter, Joseph wrote that the Angel Moroni told him "where there was deposited some plates on which were engraven an abridgement of the records of the ancient prophets that had existed on this continent." Later, Joseph writes that "[the Book of Mormon] tells us that our Saviour made his appearance upon this continent after his resurrection."
- Joseph touches on Book of Mormon geography in his 1842 "Church History" editorial.
[96]↩︎
In October 1832, W. W. Phelps described the midwest as "the centre of America," emphasizing its geographical significance between Maine and Nootka Sound, the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Gulf of California, and from Cape Horn to Baffin's Bay. A few months later, in February 1833, he noted that archaeological findings from Central America provided evidence of the "original or ancient inhabitants of this continent." In 1837, William Smith stated in the Messenger and Advocate that the Book of Mormon described Lehi and his family as "settling this continent of North and South America."
Joseph Smith also emphasized the American continent’s historical significance in relation to the Book of Mormon. In an 1841 letter to John M. Bernhisel, he praised Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatán for its accuracy concerning "the antiquities of this country." In an 1842 editorial, he suggested that archaeological findings in Central America confirmed that a "great and mighty people" had once inhabited the land.
Later LDS leaders reinforced this hemispheric view. Orson Pratt in 1873 declared Native Americans to be "the descendants of Lehi" throughout North and South America. Brigham Young, in an 1876 letter, envisioned settlements of the Church stretching from Arizona through Central America, filling "the great backbone of the American continent."
[97]↩︎
In his 1828 dictionary, Noah Webster defined America as "one of the great continents" stretching from the eightieth degree north to the fifty-fourth degree south latitude, and from the thirty-fifth to the one hundred and fifty-sixth degree of west longitude. He further divided the continent into North and South America, noting that the boundary was at Darien.
By 1843, historian William Prescott classified Mexico and Yucatán as part of "North America" or "the American continent." That same year, John McIntosh, in The Origin of the North American Indians, grouped Mexicans among those who inhabited "this continent," describing them as a superior race compared to other tribes found by Europeans.
Similarly, in 1846, Samuel G. Goodrich, in his book North America; or the United States and the Adjacent Countries, included Mexico in his definition of North America. He described North America as containing the United States, British and Russian possessions, polar regions, as well as Mexico and Guatemala to the south.
[98]↩︎
Early 19th-century geographies were inconsistent in how they divided America. For example, an encyclopedia published in New York in 1805 described America as a "vast continent" that "extends from Cape Horn, its most southerly extremity, in Lat. 56, S. to the North Pole. . . . It is nearly 10,000 miles in length from N. to S."
A geography book published in London in 1819 described "this vast country" of America as extending "from the 80th degree of north to the 56th degree of south latitude; and, where its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 136th degree west longitude from London; stretching between 8,000 and 9,000 miles in length, and in its greatest breadth 3,690." This source further stated that America "sees both hemispheres," but it also acknowledged a division, stating that America was "divided into two great continents, called North and South America, by an isthmus 1,500 miles long, and which at Darien, about Lat. 9° N, is only 60 miles over."
In 1841, a London-published encyclopedia referred to "America" as a single landmass, estimating its size at 15 million square miles (roughly equivalent to Africa) with 32,000 miles of coastline.
The recognition of North and South America as distinct continents did not become commonplace until the mid-19th century, with works such as The Earth and Man (1849) by Arnold Guyot, which explicitly classified America as two separate continents.
[99]↩︎
Historian Andrew H. Hedges notes:
To think . . . that the phrase "this continent" . . . necessarily meant "North America" to early nineteenth century Americans, or that "America" or "this country" meant the "United States," would be a mistake. . . . For Joseph [Smith] and his contemporaries, "continent" typically meant "a great extent of land, not disjoined or interrupted by a sea; a connected tract of land of great extent; as the Eastern and Western continent." . . . Similarly, "America," was considered "one of the great continents, . . . extend[ing] from the eightieth degree of North, to the fifty-fourth degree of South Latitude"—that is, all of North and South America combined.
- Andrew H. Hedges reviews the statements made by Joseph Smith and other early Saints on Book of Mormon geography.
[100]↩︎
Joseph became editor of the Times and Seasons in March 1842, beginning with the ninth number of the third volume of the paper that year. His editorship continued until October 15, 1842. On November 15, 1842, beginning with the fourth volume of the paper, editorship had been turned over to John Taylor.
- Joseph becomes editor of the Times and Seasons.
- Joseph appoints John Taylor as editor of the Times and Seasons.
[101]↩︎
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens, published in 1841, is a detailed travelogue chronicling Stephens’s explorations of ancient ruins and civilizations in Central America. Accompanied by illustrator Frederick Catherwood, Stephens documented his visit to numerous archaeological sites, including Copán, Palenque, and Uxmal, offering vivid descriptions of the architecture, artifacts, and surrounding landscapes.
- Preface to John Lloyd Stephens's book Incidents of Travel in Central America.
[102]↩︎
Latter-day Saints in the early 1840s were enthusiastic about the publication of Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, viewing it as compelling evidence supporting the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon. Matthew Roper notes:
Joseph Smith and other early Latter-day Saints also greeted these Central American discoveries with enthusiasm, in large part because of their potential relevance to the Book of Mormon. Joseph Smith’s own interest and endorsement of the books had a significant impact on Latter-day Saint interpretations. In addition to providing new information on Central American discoveries, these volumes provided Latter-day Saints with a useful rebuttal to those who claimed that native American peoples were incapable of the kind of cultural achievement described in the Book of Mormon. Those discoveries also influenced how Latter-day Saints interpreted the cultural and historical setting of the book.
[103]↩︎
Seven articles appeared in the Times and Seasons between May and October 1842, during Joseph Smith's tenure as editor, that touched on Book of Mormon geography and archaeological evidence. They include:
- (1) "A Catacomb of Mummies Found in Kentucky" (May 1842)
- (2) "From Priest’s American Antiquities" (June 1842)
- (3) "Traits of Mosaic History" (June 1842)
- (4) "American Antiquities" (July 1842)
- (5) "Extract from Stephens' 'Incidents of Travel in Central America'"(September 1842)
- (6) "Facts Are Stubborn Things" (September 1842)
- (7) "Zarahemla" (October 1842)
Of these articles, (3), (5), (6), and (7) referenced Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan or argued for a connection between the Book of Mormon and Central America. The remaining articles, (1), (2), and (4), made broader arguments for ancient evidence supporting the Book of Mormon without specific references to Central America.
[104]↩︎
Some of the editorials were unsigned, while others were simply signed "Ed.," meaning they were authored by Joseph Smith.
Joseph was assisted by John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff in managing the Times and Seasons during the period when the Book of Mormon geography editorials were published, meaning they possibly could have assisted Joseph in composing these editorials. Investigative work by Matthew Roper and his colleagues concludes that "both the historical and stylometric evidence point toward Joseph Smith as the most likely author of the editorials," with possible assistance from Taylor and Woodruff.
- Matthew Roper et al. argue from wordprint studies that Joseph likely had a a hand in authoring the Times and Seasons Mesoamerica editorials.
[105]↩︎
Between August and November 1842, Joseph Smith went into hiding to avoid an extradition order to Missouri for his alleged involvement in the attempted murder of Governor Lilburn W. Boggs. During his hiding, three articles touching on Book of Mormon geography appeared in the Times and Seasons: "Extract from Stephens' 'Incidents of Travel in Central America' (September 1842), "Facts Are Stubborn Things" (September 1842), and "Zarahemla" (October 1842).
Historical evidence indicates that during this period, Joseph remained near Nauvoo, moving in and out of hiding while maintaining regular correspondence with family, friends, and Church leaders. He also had opportunities to oversee his editorial responsibilities with the Times and Seasons and conduct other Church business.

Date	Statement	Comment
January 4, 1833	"The Book of Mormon is a record of the forefathers of our western tribes of Indians. It was found through the ministration of a holy angel and translated into our own language by the gift and power of God after being hidden in the earth for the last fourteen hundred years. It contains the word of God, which was delivered to them. By it, we learn that our western tribes of Indians are descendants of Joseph, who was sold into Egypt, and that the land of America is a promised land for them. To this land, all the tribes of Israel will come."[39]	Joseph Smith believed that the Book of Mormon connects the indigenous peoples of the Americas with the house of Israel. However, this statement is broad and does not offer specific insight into Book of Mormon geography.
June 4, 1834	"The whole of our journey [was] in the midst of so large a company of social, honest, and sincere men, wandering over the plains of the Nephites, occasionally recounting the history of the Book of Mormon, roving over the mounds of that once-beloved people of the Lord, picking up their skulls and bones as proof of its divine authenticity."[40]	Joseph Smith associated certain locations in the United States with the peoples and events described in the Book of Mormon. However, this statement does not offer detailed geographic correlations and includes the phrase "plains of the Nephites," which does not appear in the Book of Mormon text.
November 1835	"[Moroni] said the Indians were the literal descendants of Abraham. He explained many things of the prophesies to me."[41]	Joseph Smith was told by Moroni that Native Americans were literal descendants of Abraham, tying them to the covenantal lineage described in the Book of Mormon. But Joseph did not identify where in the Americas Book of Mormon events occurred or link the narrative to any specific geographic region.
Circa April–May 1838	"[Moroni] said there was a book deposited, written upon gold plates, giving an account of the former inhabitants of this continent, and the source from whence they sprang."[42]	Joseph Smith believed the Book of Mormon provides a historical account of the "former inhabitants of this [American] continent" and explains their origins. The statement does not provide details about where specific Book of Mormon events occurred.
November 16, 1841	"[Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan] unfolds and develops many things that are of great importance to this generation and corresponds with and supports the testimony of the Book of Mormon. I have read the volumes with the greatest interest and pleasure and must say that, of all histories written pertaining to the antiquities of this country, it is the most correct, luminous, and comprehensive."[43]	Joseph Smith believed Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens supported the authenticity of the Book of Mormon. Joseph seemed open to situating Book of Mormon events in Mesoamerica, but did not explicitly endorse a specific geography.
March 1842	"In this important and interesting book the history of ancient America is unfolded, from its first settlement by a colony that came from the tower of Babel, at the confusion of languages to the beginning of the fifth century of the Christian era. We are informed by these records that America in ancient times has been inhabited by two distinct races of people. The first were called Jaredites and came directly from the tower of Babel. The second race came directly from the city of Jerusalem, about six hundred years before Christ. They were principally Israelites, of the descendants of Joseph. The Jaredites were destroyed about the time that the Israelites came from Jerusalem, who succeeded them in the inheritance of the country. The principal nation of the second race fell in battle towards the close of the fourth century. The remnant are the Indians that now inhabit this country."[44]	Joseph Smith identified America as the setting for the Book of Mormon, identifying Native Americans as descendants of ancient Israelite and Jaredite civilizations. While offering a broad historical overview, Joseph did not provide specific geographic details or correlate Book of Mormon events with real-world landmarks.
May 1842	"The Book of Mormon gives an account of a number of the descendants of Israel coming to this continent; and it is well known that the art of embalming was known among the Hebrews, as well as among the Egyptians, although perhaps not so generally among the former, as among the latter people; and their method of embalming also might be different from that of the Egyptians. This art was no doubt transmitted from Jerusalem to this continent, by the before mentioned emigrants, which accounts for the finding of the mummies, and at the same time is another strong evidence of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon."[45]	Joseph Smith thought that the events of the Book of Mormon took place on the American continent and that practices such as embalming, associated with ancient Hebrews and Egyptians, were transmitted by Book of Mormon peoples to the New World. He did not specify where on the American continent Book of Mormon events occurred, leaving the geographic scope broad and undefined.
June 1842	"There are many things contained in the above [traditions from Central America] that go to support the testimony of the Book of Mormon, as well as that of the Mosaic history. The Mexican records agree so well with the word of the book of Ether (found by the people of Limhi, which is contained in the Book of Mormon) in relation to the confounding of languages. . . . These accounts, then, precisely agree, one of which was found in Ontario county, N. Y., and the other in Mexico. . . . The coincidence is so striking that further comment is unnecessary."[46]	Joseph Smith was open to correlating the Book of Mormon narrative with ancient traditions found in Mexico. While he drew connections between Mesoamerican traditions and the Book of Mormon, he did not indicate specific locations or landmarks.
July 1842	"If men, in their researches into the history of this country, in noticing the mounds, fortifications, statues, architecture, implements of war, implements of husbandry, and ornaments of silver, brass, etc., were to examine the Book of Mormon, their conjectures would be removed, and their opinions altered. Uncertainty and doubt would be changed into certainty and facts, and they would find that the things they are anxiously prying into are matters of history unfolded in that book. . . . Stephens and Catherwood's researches in Central America abundantly testify to this. The stupendous ruins, the elegant sculpture, and the magnificence of the ruins of Guatemala and other cities corroborate this statement and show that a great and mighty people—men of great minds, clear intellect, bright genius, and comprehensive designs—inhabited this continent. Their ruins speak of their greatness; the Book of Mormon unfolds their history."[47]	Joseph Smith viewed the archaeological ruins described by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in Central America as evidence supporting the Book of Mormon's historical claims. He did not definitively identify specific cities or landmarks in Mesoamerica as corresponding to Book of Mormon locations.
September 6, 1842	"And again, what do we hear? Glad tidings from Cumorah! Moroni, an angel from heaven, declaring the fulfillment of the prophets—the book to be revealed."[48]	Joseph Smith identified the Hill Cumorah in New York with the coming forth of the Book of Mormon but did not provide any additional information about where other Book of Mormon events, cities, or landmarks might have been located.
May 23, 1844	"I replied: 'We know you have been wronged, but we bought this land and paid our money for it. I advise you not to sell any more land. Cultivate peace with all men and with the different tribes. The Great Spirit wants you to be united and live in peace. I found a book' (presenting the Book of Mormon) 'which told me about your fathers, and the Great Spirit told me. You must send to all the tribes you can and tell them to live in peace. And when any of our people come to see you, treat them as we treat you'."[49]	Joseph Smith believed that the Book of Mormon is directly related to the ancestors of Native Americans. The statement does not provide details about where specific Book of Mormon events took place.

Church Leader	Date	Statement
George Q. Cannon[BIO]	July 1887	"We have geographical descriptions by some of the writers of the Book of Mormon concerning the lands inhabited by the Lamanites and those inhabited by the Nephites: but they are not sufficiently definite to enable the reader to locate the lines exactly."[54]
George Q. Cannon	January 1890	"There is a tendency, strongly manifested at the present time among some of the brethren, to study the geography of the Book of Mormon. . . . We are greatly pleased to notice the increasing interest taken by the Saints in this holy book. . . . [T]he brethren who lecture on the lands of the Nephites or the geography of the Book of Mormon are not united in their conclusions. No two of them, so far as we have learned, are agreed on all points, and in many cases the variations amount to tens of thousands of miles. These differences of views lead to discussion, contention and perplexity; and we believe more confusion is caused by these divergences than good is done by the truths elicited. How is it that there is such a variety of ideas on this subject? Simply because the Book of Mormon is not a geographical primer. It was not written to teach geographical truths. . . . The First Presidency have often been asked to prepare some suggestive map illustrative of Nephite geography, but have never consented to do so. Nor are we acquainted with any of the Twelve Apostles who would undertake such a task. The reason is, that without further information they are not prepared even to suggest."[55]
Joseph F. Smith[BIO]	May 1903	"President Smith spoke briefly and expressed the idea that the question of the situation of the city [of Zarahemla] was one of interest certainly, but if it could not be located the matter was not of vital importance, and if there were differences of opinion on the question it would not affect the salvation of the people; and he advised against students considering it of such vital importance as the principles of the Gospel."[56]
B. H. Roberts[BIO]	1909	"If the investigation now going on shall result in [new discoveries], many of our difficulties as to the geography of the Book of Mormon — if not all of them in fact, will have passed away. In that event much found in this treatise of the Book of Mormon relative to the Nephites being in South America — written under the impression that the passage in the above named Compendium was, as is there set forth, a revelation — will have to be modified. And let me here say a word in relation to new discoveries in our knowledge of the Book of Mormon, and for matter of that in relation to all subjects connected with the work of the Lord in the earth. We need not follow our researches in any spirit of fear and trembling. . . . All which is submitted, especially to the membership of the Church, that they may be prepared to find and receive new truths both in the Book of Mormon itself and about it; and that they may also rejoice in the fact that knowledge of truth is inexhaustible, and will forever go on developing."[57]
James E. Talmage[BIO]	February 1923	"Somewhat over a year ago a committee of the Council of Twelve sat for days listening to the presentation of the subject of Book of Mormon geography by several of our brethren who have given particular study to the subject, and we found that their views differed as widely as the continent. It was there and then decided that until we have clearer knowledge in the matter, the Church could not authorize or approve the issuance of any map, chart, or text, purporting to set forth demonstrated facts relating to Book of Mormon lands."[58]
Anthony W. Ivins[BIO]	April 1929	"There is a great deal of talk about the geography of the Book of Mormon. Where was the land of Zarahemla? Where was the City of Zarahemla? and other geographic matters. It does not make any difference to us. There has never been anything yet set forth that definitely settles that question. So the Church says we are just waiting until we discover the truth."[59]
James E. Talmage	April 1929	"I have met a few of our Book of Mormon students who claim to be able to put a finger upon the map and indicate every land and city mentioned in the Book of Mormon. The fact is, the Book of Mormon does not give us precise and definite information whereby we can locate those places with certainty. I encourage and recommend all possible investigation, comparison and research in this matter. The more thinkers, investigators, workers we have in the field the better; but our brethren who devote themselves to that kind of research should remember that they must speak with caution and not declare as demonstrated truths points that are not really proved."[60]
John A. Widtsoe[BIO]	July 1950	"The actual geographical locations of Book of Mormon events and places have always intrigued students of the book. Several volumes and many articles on the subject have been published. The various writers so far have failed to agree. Often the suggested locations vary, with different authors, thousands of miles. An earnest, honest search is being continued by enthusiastic Book of Mormon students. . . . As far as can be learned, the Prophet Joseph Smith, translator of the book, did not say where, on the American continent, Book of Mormon activities occurred. Perhaps he did not know. . . . Out of diligent, prayerful study, we may be led to a better understanding of times and places in the history of the people who move across the pages of the divinely given Book of Mormon."[61]
Mark E. Petersen[BIO]	July 1954	"Now, a General Authority might speculate, I suppose. We have had speculation, for instance, on the part of some with respect to Book of Mormon geography, and it is plain, unadulterated speculation and not doctrine. And if a General Authority has speculated on Book of Mormon geography he did not represent the view of the Church while doing so."[62]
Harold B. Lee[BIO]	July 1973	"The witness of the Book of Mormon is not found in the ruins of Central and South America. They may be outward evidences of a people long since disappeared. The real witness is that which is found in the Book of Mormon itself."[63]
Neal A. Maxwell[BIO]	1986	"Individuals and settings of obscurity are not unusual to the Lord's purposes. Meridian–day Christianity was initiated on a very small geographical scale and with comparatively few people. The larger, busy world paid little heed to it. Likewise with the Book of Mormon peoples. Whether located in Meso–America or elsewhere, they were one people among many peoples on this planet and perhaps even on the western hemisphere."[64]
Dallin H. Oaks[BIO]	1993	"[While at BYU] I was introduced to the idea that the Book of Mormon is not a history of all of the people who have lived on the continents of North and South America in all ages of the earth. Up to that time I had assumed that it was. If that were the claim of the Book of Mormon, any piece of historical, archaeological, or linguistic evidence to the contrary would weigh in against the Book of Mormon, and those who rely exclusively on scholarship would have a promising position to argue. In contrast, if the Book of Mormon only purports to be an account of a few peoples who inhabited a portion of the Americas during a few millennia in the past, the burden of argument changes drastically. It is no longer a question of all versus none; it is a question of some versus none."[65]
Russell M. Nelson[BIO]	October 1999	"I would like to add my testimony of the divinity of this book. I have read it many times. I have also read much that has been written about it. Some authors have focused upon its stories, its people, or its vignettes of history. Others have been intrigued by its language structure or its records of weapons, geography, animal life, techniques of building, or systems of weights and measures. Interesting as these matters may be, study of the Book of Mormon is most rewarding when one focuses on its primary purpose—to testify of Jesus Christ. By comparison, all other issues are incidental."[66]

Church Leader	Statement
Orson Pratt	"And the Lord gave unto them [Lehi's seed] the whole continent, for a land of promise, and promised, that they, and their children after them, should inherit it, on condition of their obedience to his commandments; but if they were disobedient, they should be cut off from his presence."[109]
Joseph Smith	"The Prophets have spoken and written upon it, but I will make a proclamation that will cover a broader ground. The whole of America is Zion itself from north to south, and is described by the prophets, who declare that it is Zion where the mountain of the Lord should be, and that it should be in the center of the land."[110]
Brigham Young	"I will give you the key: North and South America is Zion, and as soon as the temple is done and you get your endowment you can go and build up stakes; but don’t be in haste."[111]
Brigham Young	"And what is Zion? In one sense Zion is the pure in heart. But is there a land that ever will be called Zion? Yes, brethren. What land is it? It is the land that the Lord gave to Jacob, who bequeathed it to his son Joseph, and his posterity, and they inhabit it, and that land is North and South America."[112]
Brigham Young	"The Lord has had his eye on this spot from the beginning—upon this part of the land of Joseph. Read the history contained in the Book of Mormon, and ask yourselves whether God has ever suffered a king to reign on this land. Will he ever? No. This is the land that was given to Joseph—the son so well beloved by his father Jacob; and no king will ever reign upon it but the King, the Lord. Could that book have been brought forth and published to the world under any other government but the Government of the United States? No. He has governed and controlled the settling of this continent. He led our fathers from Europe to this land, and prepared the way to break the yoke that bound them, and inspired the guaranteed freedom in our Government, though that guarantee is too often disregarded."[113]
Erastus Snow[BIO]	"Our ideas of Zion were [at first] very limited. But as our minds began to grow and expand, why we began to look upon Zion as a great people, and the Stakes of Zion as numerous, and the area of the country to be inhabited by the people of Zion as this great American continent, or at least such portions of it as the Lord should consecrate for the gathering of His people. We ceased to set bounds to Zion and her Stakes."[114]
George Q. Cannon	"We live under a Government, the best that ever was formed by man upon this earth—a Government in which every human being can live without interfering with the rights of others in the practice of the principles which God reveals. God has purposely arranged this. He raised up wise men to lay the foundation of this Government, and He defended them against the mother country, and enabled them to achieve victory over the greatest power there was upon the face of the earth—the power of Great Britain. He gave them power to form a Constitution under which every man and woman can dwell in perfect freedom—that is, if they wanted to do right. This land has been dedicated to liberty, dedicated by the Lord our God, and by men who have lived upon this land, to liberty, and as long as this land shall be a land of liberty it will be a blessed land to the inhabitants thereof."[115]
B. H. Roberts	"The Book of Mormon teaches that the two American continents [North and South America] are a promised land, consecrated to righteousness and to liberty, and especially dedicated to the seed of the Patriarch Joseph, son of Jacob, of Bible fame, and to the Gentile races, who shall in the last days be gathered to the land as well as the descendants of Joseph."[116]
John A. Widtsoe	"The prophet Jacob prophesied 'this land shall be a land of liberty unto the Gentiles, and there shall be no kings upon the land, who shall raise up unto the gentiles.' (2 Nephi 10:10-14.) This prophecy has been fulfilled for from Alaska on the north to the straits of Magellan in the south continent, the 'new world' under the consecration of God, is blessed with freedom, and republican, not monarchial institutions."[117]
George Albert Smith[BIO]	"In the Book of Mormon, 'The American volume of scripture,' the Lord has given to us information pertaining to this land upon which we dwell and called it a land favored above all other lands. I recommend that not only you Latter-day Saints read the Book of Mormon, but that our Father's other children read it. They will find that it contains, in addition to what the Bible has told us about the world, what the Lord has said about this Western Hemisphere — that this should be a land of liberty unto the Gentiles and that no king should dwell upon this land, but that He, the God of Heaven, would be our King and would fortify this land against all the nations, that this should be a land of peace and happiness, on condition that we would honor the God of this earth, the Father of us all. The factor controlling this promise is that we must keep the commandments of our Heavenly Father or it cannot be realized."[118]
David O. McKay[BIO]	"While the scripture text itself comes from ancient Israel and Palestine, yet it has deep and vital meaning to and for us of this land – the land of Zion, the American hemisphere. . . . It is this fact and purpose, the building of Zion on this hemisphere, which is Zion, which seem to be the dominant elements in all God’s dealings with them who possess the land."[119]
Levi Edgar Young[BIO]	"In after ages America was discovered by Christopher Columbus, who was directed by the Spirit of the Lord to cross the mighty deep. His prayer on landing was a dedication of this land to God. . . In time the government of the United States was established with its Constitution, which we believe was written by the blessing and power of God. The formation of the republic of the United States was an event ordered of God for the bringing of his kingdom upon the earth. . . . We read in the Book of Mormon how Lehi's son Jacob taught the people the sacredness of America as a land preserved by the hand of God for his future holy work."[120]
Spencer W. Kimball[BIO]	"With some of the Brethren we have just returned recently from the area conferences in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In that southern world of Zion we reminded them that Zion was all of North and South America, like the wide, spreading wings of a great eagle, the one being North and the other South America."[121]
Spencer W. Kimball	"The lands of America contain much of the world's wealth—in hydraulic power, in metals, in wood, in the oil deposits. In many natural resources, the land of America is rich and will produce abundantly. This is for you, for us, and for all the good people who live upon the land of America. Protection against enemies has been promised. In all the Americas, neither kings nor emperors will combine to take the land. Great promises are given us, if we live the commandments God has given us."[122]
Ezra Taft Benson[BIO]	"To the Latter-day Saints the Promised land, the land of Zion includes all of North and South America."[123]
Ezra Taft Benson	"For centuries the Lord kept America hidden in the hollow of His hand until the time was right to unveil her for her destiny in the last days. . . Our Father in Heaven planned the coming forth of the Founding Fathers and their form of government as the necessary great prologue leading to the restoration of the gospel. . . . America, the land of liberty, was to be the Lord’s latter-day base of operations for His restored church."[124]
L. Tom Perry[BIO]	"The United States is the promised land foretold in the Book of Mormon—a place where divine guidance directed inspired men to create the conditions necessary for the Restoration of the gospel of Jesus Christ. It was the birth of the United States of America that ushered out the Great Apostasy, when the earth was darkened by the absence of prophets and revealed light. It was no coincidence that the lovely morning of the First Vision occurred just a few decades after the establishment of the United States."[125]