Utah Gender Wage Gap

Does Utah have one of the widest wage gaps in the nation between men and women?

Yes. When it comes to the unadjusted gender wage gap, Utah has the second-highest wage gap in the U.S. with women making $0.69 for every $1 a man makes.^[1]

There is no data available on the adjusted gender wage gap for Utah, but it is estimated to be greater than $0.949 for every $1 a man makes.^[2]

What are the adjusted or unadjusted gender wage gaps and how are they defined?

Economists have defined the gender wage gap as "a metric that tells us the difference in pay (or wages, or income) between women and men."^[3] The calculations for the adjusted gender wage gap account for differences in education, work experience, occupations, etc., while the unadjusted calculations do not.^[4]

What is the adjusted age gap used for? Why not use the unadjusted pay gap information?

Controlling for more variables means more precise data, which enables policymakers and business leaders to better identify ways of promoting economic opportunities for women.^[5]

In a 2009 report the U.S. Department of Labor stated that the unadjusted pay gap can be "used in misleading ways" and doesn't explain the true reasons behind the gap.^[6] The St. Louis Federal Reserve noted that the unadjusted number is a bad indicator to base corrective actions on.^[7]

By controlling for age, education, experience, location, job level, company, and function, the adjusted wage gap provides a more accurate assessment of the individual circumstances of women.^[8] It also tends to lower the discrepancy to between 2% and 6%.^[9] Unadjusted values are less specific and indicate a gap of about 24%.^[10]

What kind of controls does the adjusted gap use?

Some controls include age, education, experience, location, job level, company, and function.^[11]

For example, controlling for weekly hours worked significantly reduces the national gender pay gap,^[12] because on average and across all industries, women in the U.S. work fewer hours a week than men.^[13] This is also true in "white collar" occupations such as physicians,^[14] lawyers,^[15] and MBAs.^[16] Even within unionized occupations (which are designed to be equalized), women work less overtime and take more unpaid time off.^[17]

What does the gender wage gap have to do with the Church?

Some researchers have argued that religion plays a major role in Utah's gender wage gap, particularly with the Church's focus on family, motherhood, and raising children.^[18]

How do the Church's teachings on family and motherhood influence the gender wage gap?

The Church teaches that "mothers are primarily responsible for the nurture of their children" and "fathers . . . are responsible to provide the necessities of life and protection for their families."^[20] Latter-day Saints make up the majority of Utah's population.^[21] Utah has the highest birth rate^[22] and one of the highest fertility rates in the nation.^[23]

Having children plays a major role in women's decisions about occupation and work hours,^[24] which contributes to the gender wage gap.^[25]

So does the Church teach that women shouldn't work?

No. The Church teaches that "fathers and mothers are obligated to help one another as equal partners" and that "circumstances may necessitate individual adaptation," including working.^[26]

What outcomes do Church teachings have on women in the workplace?

By encouraging women to have children and be mothers, the Church could put Latter-day Saint women at a disadvantage in the workplace, as raising children directly impacts career progression.^[27] This may contribute to existing discrimination in the workplace.^[28]

However, according to research from Pew, American parents find almost twice as much meaning from child-care experiences than in employment.^[29] And for women, over half of working moms reported they would rather stay home, and over half of stay-at-home moms reported that their desire to raise children is a "major reason" for not working.^[30]

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Footnotes

[1]↩︎
According to Census Bureau data, the size of Utah's unadjusted gender wage gap is second only to Wyoming.
Other researchers have found that women on average make about 30% less than men.
[2]↩︎
This is based on a 2018 Payscale report. Unfortunately, it does not provide adjusted gender wage gaps for all states.
The most narrow adjusted gender wage gaps were in Connecticut, Vermont, Oregon, New Mexico, Rhode Island, Alaska, and the District of Columbia. The largest adjusted gender wage gaps were in Alabama and Louisiana.
The Payscale report indicates that Utah's gender wage gap is wider than the most narrow states but smaller than Louisiana and Alabama. This makes Utah's gap below 5.1%.
- Payscale report lists Louisiana and Alabama as the states with the highest adjusted gender pay gaps.
[3]↩︎
Oxford economists Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser defined this understanding of the gender wage gap on their webpage Our World in Data, which collects and publishes data on global poverty, inequality, economic development, violence, and more. The publication is a collaboration between researchers at the University of Oxford and the non-profit Global Change Data Lab.
- Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser for Our World in Data provide an overview of gender wage gap.
[4]↩︎
One pair of scholars explained:
The uncontrolled . . . gender pay gap compares the median (or mean) earnings of men and women in general without taking into consideration variables such as hours worked, level of education, type of job, industry, and other demographics. . . . That’s addressed with the controlled gender pay gap. This is done using statistical techniques to control for such variables to better reflect the true gender pay gap.
A 2009 report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor stated that the unadjusted pay gap can be "used in misleading ways to advance public policy agendas without fully explaining the reasons behind the gap." Another report by the St. Louis Federal Reserve described it as an "improper indicator."
[5]↩︎
Economist Diana Fuchtgott-Roth worried that policymakers relying on the unadjusted gender wage gap "will overreact to false discrimination claims and pass legislation that will slow the growth of jobs in America for both men and women."
Alyson Reed, formerly of the National Committee on Pay Equity, noted that "not all of the wage gap is attributable to outright wage discrimination." She argued for the possibility that gender "differences in experience, training and occupation themselves reflect larger workplace and societal discrimination" that need to be addressed.
Researchers who have written on how Utah's gender wage gap is problematic have also acknowledged that the gender wage gap shrinks significantly when proper controls are applied.
[6]↩︎
In a 2009 report prepared by CONSAD Research Corporation, the US Department of Labor stated that "the raw wage gap continues to be used in misleading ways to advance public policy agendas without fully explaining the reasons behind the gap."
The report continued:
Although additional research in this area is clearly needed, this study leads to the unambiguous conclusion that the differences in the compensation of men and women are the result of a multitude of factors and that the raw wage gap should not be used as the basis to justify corrective action.
- US Department of Labor states that the unadjusted gender wage gap can be "used in misleading ways".
[7]↩︎
In this report, economists Natalia A. Kolesnikova and Yang Liu explained:
Current research suggests that gender earnings disparity has declined but not disappeared. The adjusted (“true”) gender wage gap, however, is substantially smaller than the raw gender wage gap. Because of this, the raw gender gap is the improper indicator for policymakers to use to justify corrective actions.
- Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis report concludes that "the raw gender gap is the improper indicator" for policy decisions.
[8]↩︎
Economist Diana Furchtgott-Roth explained:
When the wage gap is analyzed by individual occupations, jobs and employee characteristics, regional labor markets, job titles, job responsibility, and experience; then the wage gap shrinks. . . . When these differences are considered, many studies show that men and women make about the same.
She also added, "The danger is not that progress for women in slowing, but that Congress will overreact to false discrimination claims and pass legislation that will slow the growth of jobs in America for both men and women."
- Furchtgott-Roth reviews the literature on the gender wage gap; states that proper adjustments significantly shrink the gap.
[9]↩︎
After controlling for age, education, years of experience, job title, employer, and location, a 2016 Glassdoor report found that the average gender wage gap in the United States is 5.4%.
Another study, from the consulting firm Korn Ferry, looked at data from 33 countries and found that controlling for job level, company, and function reduces the average gender wage gap to less than 2%.
- Glassdoor report finds that the adjusted gender wage gap is significantly smaller than the raw wage gap.
- Korn Ferry study finds that controlling for job level, company, and function reduces the gender pay gap to under 2 percent.
[10]↩︎
The 2016 Glassdoor report found that the unadjusted gender wage gap in the U.S. was 24.1%.
- Glassdoor report finds that the adjusted gender wage gap is significantly smaller than the raw wage gap.
[11]↩︎
A 2016 Glassdoor report found that the unadjusted gender wage gap in the U.S. was 24.1%. After controlling for age, education, years of experience, job title, employer, and location, the report discovered that the gap dropped to 5.4%. This was true across five different countries.
Another study by the consulting firm Korn Ferry looked at data from 33 countries and found that controlling for job level, company, and function reduces the average gender wage gap to less than 2%.
A 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Literature found that gender differences in occupations and industries are the biggest contributors to the gender wage gap. Another 2018 study in The Quarterly Journal of Economics found that female college graduates preferred greater work flexibility and job stability to higher pay.
A 2020 report by the Utah Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights found that "occupational segregation explains half of the gender wage gap" in Utah.
[12]↩︎
Economist Claudia Goldin's research found:
The impact of hours on the gender gap is large and goes far to explain much of the gender earnings gap. Individuals who work long hours in these occupations receive a disproportionate increase in earnings.
Other scholars have referred to this as "men and women mak[ing] different choices over the life cycle."
- American Economic Review study finds that the gender wage gap is largely due to hours worked.
- St. Louis Fed study notes that different life choices between men and women lead to different wage outcomes.
[13]↩︎
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, this has been the case since the 1970s. In 1976, women across all industries worked an average of 34.1 hours a week, while men worked an average of 41.7 hours a week. In 2020, women across all industries worked an average of 36.1 hours a week, while men worked an average of 40.2 hours a week.
A 2014 study in the American Sociological Review also found that men tend to engage in more overtime (50+ hours a week).
- Bureau of Labor Statistics report shows a consistent "weekly hours at work" gap between men and women since the 1970s.
- American Sociological Review study finds that men engage in more overwork than women.
[14]↩︎
A 2012 study in the Journal of Human Capital found:
The median male physician with 10 years of experience works 11 hours per week more than the median female physician in our sample with 10 years of experience.
A recent study in The Review of Economic Studies found that the long hours in the medical profession deter women from entering it at all.
- Journal of Human Capital study finds that female physicians work fewer hours than male physicians.
- The Review of Economic Studies finds that long hours deter women from entering the medical profession.
[15]↩︎
A 2017 study in the Journal of Political Economy found that male lawyers on average bill 10% more hours than women lawyers.
According to economist Claudia Goldin's research, women's hours tend to drop with the arrival of children.
- Journal of Political Economy study finds that male lawyers bill more hours than female lawyers.
- American Economic Review study finds that the gender wage gap is largely due to hours worked.
[16]↩︎
Economist Claudia Goldin found that women with MBAs with children on average worked 24% fewer hours than men with MBAs. Women with no children who had MBAs worked only 3.3% fewer hours.
- American Economic Journal: Applied Economics study finds that male MBAs work more hours than female MBAs.
- American Economic Review study finds that the gender wage gap is largely due to hours worked.
[17]↩︎
A 2022 study of unionized bus and train operators found that women workers earned $0.89 for every $1 their male co-workers earned. This was due to women working less overtime and taking more unpaid time off.
- Journal of Labor Economics study finds that female union bus/train operators work less overtime and take more time-off than male operators.
[18]↩︎
In a 2017 SquareTwo article, Susan Madsen, Robbyn T. Scribner, and Janika Dillon argued:
Mormon culture emphasizes marriage and motherhood as a high priority for women, which is demonstrated by the fact that Utah has the nation’s highest marriage rate, the earliest age for marriage, the second-highest fertility rate, and the largest average household size. These factors contribute to the high gender wage gap, since many women in the state prioritize family during their key earning years, which can leave them at a disadvantage in wage potential and actual pay.
Others have made similar statements about religious states in general.
[19]↩︎
The Church laid out these roles in its 1995 proclamation on the family. What's more, these gendered responsibilities are understood to be "by divine design."
- Text of "The Family: A Proclamation to the World" issued by the Church (September 1995).
[20]↩︎
Before outlining parents' roles and responsibilities, the Church's proclamation on the family also states that "God’s commandment for His children to multiply and replenish the earth remains in force."
- Text of "The Family: A Proclamation to the World" issued by the Church (September 1995).
[21]↩︎
In January 2020, the Salt Lake Tribune reported Utah's population was 60.68% Latter-day Saint.
The Church's website placed the percentage at 66.07.
- SLT reports on Utah's LDS population.
- LDS statistics sheet shows the LDS population of Utah to be 66.07 percent.
[22]↩︎
As of 2022, Utah had a birth rate of 14.9 per 1,000 women. The Utah Department of Health reported that Utah's birth rate was higher than the U.S. average.
- Utah DoH reports that Utah has a higher birth rate than the U.S.
- World Population Review reports that Utah has the highest birth rate and one of the highest fertility rates in the country.
[23]↩︎
As of 2022, Utah had the fifth-highest fertility rate in the country. Utah's total fertility rate has been higher than the national total fertility rate since the 1920s.
[24]↩︎
Economist Claudia Goldin found that "children are the main contributors to women’s labor supply changes." She also noted that, overall, children are "the main contributor to the lesser job experience, greater career discontinuity, and shorter work hours for" women.
A 2018 study in The Quarterly Journal of Economics found that women generally prefer greater work flexibility and job stability over higher pay.
A 2012 study in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology also found that a scarcity of men (and, consequently, a lower chance of starting a family) predicts women choosing higher-paying careers.
A 2020 report by the Utah Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights found that the gender wage gap in Utah increases during women's "prime childbearing years."
[25]↩︎
A 2009 report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor stated, "The differences in raw wages may be almost entirely the result of the individual choices being made by both male and female workers."
This same report explained that these choices "account for most of the wage gap."
- US Department of Labor states that the unadjusted gender wage gap can be "used in misleading ways".
[26]↩︎
The Church's proclamation on the family reads:
By divine design, fathers are to preside over their families in love and righteousness and are responsible to provide the necessities of life and protection for their families. Mothers are primarily responsible for the nurture of their children. In these sacred responsibilities, fathers and mothers are obligated to help one another as equal partners. Disability, death, or other circumstances may necessitate individual adaptation. Extended families should lend support when needed.
- Text of "The Family: A Proclamation to the World" issued by the Church (September 1995).
[27]↩︎
Economist Claudia Goldin found that "children are the main contributors to women’s labor supply changes." She also noted that, overall, children are "the main contributor to the lesser job experience, greater career discontinuity, and shorter work hours for" women.
- American Economic Review study finds that the gender wage gap is largely due to hours worked.
- American Economic Journal: Applied Economics study finds that male MBAs work more hours than female MBAs.
[28]↩︎
Dartmouth's Charles Wheelan has referred to the "statistical discrimination" against women in general (not specifically Latter-day Saint women) due to them "still bear[ing] the bulk of child-rearing responsibilities."
He added:
Demographics suggest that both [men and women] are likely to start families in the near future. Yet only the female candidate will take paid maternity leave. More important, she may not return to work after having the child, which leaves the firm with the cost of finding, hiring, and training another [employee]. . . . The female candidate is punished because the firm has no information on her specific circumstances but good data on broad social trends.
USU professor Susan Madsen has also provided some anecdotal evidence that supports Wheelan's analysis.
- Charles Wheelan explains the economic incentives and rationale behind gender discrimination.
- Susan R. Madsen argues that the gender wage gap in Utah is real; shares anecdotes from women who were discriminated against.
[29]↩︎
A 2013 Pew Research report found:
American parents with children under age 18 find 62% of their child-care experiences “very meaningful,” compared with 36% of paid work-related activities.
Various studies have found that parents (especially child-centric parents) derive greater meaning and well-being from taking care of their children.
[30]↩︎
According to Gallup data, over half (54%) of stay-at-home moms with children under 18 said that their desire to stay home with their children is a "major reason" for not working. Furthermore, over half (54%) of working mothers said they would rather stay home. Of those working moms who were unemployed at the time of the survey, 57% said they would prefer to stay home.
Wendy Wang, director of research at the Institute for Family Studies, has found that data suggest that breadwinning wives and mothers have on average less satisfying family lives.
- Gallup data indicates that most working mothers would prefer to stay home with their children.
- Wendy Wang analyzes data that show breadwinning mothers/wives have lower family satisfaction.
[31]↩︎
Theologically, the Church has affirmed that men and women are meant to be "equal partners" in their "sacred responsibilities" as "mothers and fathers."
A 1978 First Presidency statement relayed that "we recognize men and women as equally important before the Lord and the law."
- Text of "The Family: A Proclamation to the World" issued by the Church (September 1995).
- First Presidency in 1978 reaffirms opposition to ERA.
[32]↩︎
Seraph Young, the granddaughter of Brigham Young, was the one to cast the ballot.
In the book Thinking Women: A Timeline of Suffrage in Utah, scholars Katherine Kitterman and Rebekah Ryan Clark explained,
Wyoming Territory had passed women's suffrage in December 1869, so Utah Territory became the second in the nation to extend equal voting rights to women. Since Utah held both municipal and general elections before Wyoming's next election, Utah women gained the distinction of voting first. They exercised their newfound right in large numbers.
- News report of Seraph Young and other women voting in 1870 Utah election.
- Katherine Kitterman and Rebekah Ryan Clark summarize the history of Utah women's suffrage.
[33]↩︎
At an 1870 protest that eventually led to women's suffrage in Utah, Eliza R. Snow stated:
Were we the stupid, degraded, heartbroken beings that we have been represented, silence might better become us; but, as women of God,—women filling high and responsible positions—performing sacred duties—women who stand not as dictators, but as counselors to their husbands, and who, in the purest, noblest sense of refined womanhood, being truly their helpmates; we not only speak because we have the right, but justice and humanity demand that we should.
- Eliza R. Snow affirms women's positions in Utah at an 1870 protest meeting.
- Katherine Kitterman and Rebekah Ryan Clark summarize the history of Utah women's suffrage.
[34]↩︎
The Church-owned Deseret Evening News voiced support for women's suffrage on several occasions. Apostle George Q. Cannon was the editor at the time of the supportive publications. Apostle Orson Pratt was the Speaker of the Utah House of Representatives when the suffrage bill in Utah was passed.
[35]↩︎
In the statement, the First Presidency noted worry that the amendment's "deceptively simple language," "vagueness," and "sweeping generalizations" could lead to a "train of unnatural consequences" and "nullify many accumulated benefits to women in present statutes."
The statement concluded:
We express confidence that this nation is sufficiently strong and fair to be able to resolve problems of inequality and unfairness to women, or any other group in our society, without abusing the amending process of our most basic document, the Constitution, as outlined above, and without undermining our most basic institution, the family.
- First Presidency in 1978 reaffirms opposition to ERA.
[36]↩︎
As reported in the Salt Lake Tribune, the spokesman said, “The church’s position on this issue has been consistent for more than 40 years.”
- Church spokesman states that the Church opposes recent ERA proposal.
[37]↩︎
A 2020 report by the Utah Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights recommended legislation that eliminates pay secrecy, raises the minimum wage, restricts certain forms of application screening, requires race/gender-related data collection, and more.
Oddly enough, economist Thomas Leonard has shown that the minimum wage was historically used to crowd out women from the labor force in order to protect men from competition.
- Utah report provides overview of gender wage gap in Utah along with recommendations for closing it.
- Thomas C. Leonard provides the history of how the minimum wage was used to crowd out women from the labor force.
[38]↩︎
Surprisingly, greater gender equality overall has been found to correlate with greater gender inequality in STEM field participants. According to a 2018 study in Psychological Science,
countries with lower levels of gender equality had relatively more women among STEM graduates than did more gender-equal countries. This is a paradox, because gender-equal countries are those that give girls and women more educational and empowerment opportunities and that generally promote girls’ and women’s engagement in STEM fields (e.g., Williams & Ceci, 2015).
Similarly, numerous studies have found that greater gender equality overall correlates with greater gender differences in preferences and personality traits.
[39]↩︎
In a couple 2021 white papers, the UWLP recommended implementing a stand-alone equal pay act, raising the minimum wage, encouraging women to complete postsecondary certificates and degrees, providing resources for career and education planning, and providing professional development opportunities.
Oddly enough, economist Thomas Leonard has shown that the minimum wage was historically used to crowd out women from the labor force in order to protect men from competition.
[40]↩︎
Claims on Utah's gender pay gap are based on limited data right now. As the last recommendation, the UWLP white paper suggested a statewide study focused on the "causes and effects" of the pay gap.
- Utah State university white paper recommends policies to address the gender wage gap in Utah.
[41]↩︎
How effective these recommendations will be is up for debate. For example, a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Literature found
no indication of a notable improvement in women’s relative earnings in the immediate post-1964 period that might be attributable to the effects of the government’s antidiscrimination effort. . . .[I]t is puzzling that the largest female relative-wage gains and the strongest evidence of a decline in the unexplained gender wage gap were during the 1980s. . . .which includes a period in which the government’s antidiscrimination effort was noticeably scaled back.
- Journal of Economic Literature study finds that government antidiscrimination efforts did not reduce the gender pay gap; gender differences in occupation and and industries biggest reason for gap.